{"id":1628,"date":"2020-04-07T20:25:58","date_gmt":"2020-04-07T19:25:58","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/?page_id=1628"},"modified":"2023-07-01T22:22:47","modified_gmt":"2023-07-01T21:22:47","slug":"conceptual-integration","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/learners-concepts-and-thinking\/conceptual-integration\/","title":{"rendered":"Conceptual integration"},"content":{"rendered":"<div id=\"ez-toc-container\" class=\"ez-toc-v2_0_71 ez-toc-wrap-center counter-hierarchy ez-toc-counter ez-toc-custom ez-toc-container-direction\">\n<div class=\"ez-toc-title-container\">\n<p class=\"ez-toc-title\" style=\"cursor:inherit\">Page contents<\/p>\n<span class=\"ez-toc-title-toggle\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"ez-toc-pull-right ez-toc-btn ez-toc-btn-xs ez-toc-btn-default ez-toc-toggle\" aria-label=\"Toggle Table of Content\"><span class=\"ez-toc-js-icon-con\"><span class=\"\"><span class=\"eztoc-hide\" style=\"display:none;\">Toggle<\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-icon-toggle-span\"><svg style=\"fill: #2140ce;color:#2140ce\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" class=\"list-377408\" width=\"20px\" height=\"20px\" viewbox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\"><path d=\"M6 6H4v2h2V6zm14 0H8v2h12V6zM4 11h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2zM4 16h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2z\" fill=\"currentColor\"><\/path><\/svg><svg style=\"fill: #2140ce;color:#2140ce\" class=\"arrow-unsorted-368013\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"10px\" height=\"10px\" viewbox=\"0 0 24 24\" version=\"1.2\" baseprofile=\"tiny\"><path d=\"M18.2 9.3l-6.2-6.3-6.2 6.3c-.2.2-.3.4-.3.7s.1.5.3.7c.2.2.4.3.7.3h11c.3 0 .5-.1.7-.3.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7zM5.8 14.7l6.2 6.3 6.2-6.3c.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7c-.2-.2-.4-.3-.7-.3h-11c-.3 0-.5.1-.7.3-.2.2-.3.5-.3.7s.1.5.3.7z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<nav><ul class=\"ez-toc-list ez-toc-list-level-1 eztoc-toggle-hide-by-default\"><li class=\"ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3\"><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-1\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/learners-concepts-and-thinking\/conceptual-integration\/#Developments_in_science\" title=\"Developments in science\">Developments in science<\/a><\/li><li class=\"ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3\"><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-2\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/learners-concepts-and-thinking\/conceptual-integration\/#Progression_in_learning\" title=\"Progression in learning\">Progression in learning<\/a><\/li><li class=\"ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3\"><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-3\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/learners-concepts-and-thinking\/conceptual-integration\/#Fragmentation_learning_impediments\" title=\"Fragmentation learning impediments\">Fragmentation learning impediments<\/a><ul class=\"ez-toc-list-level-5\"><li class=\"ez-toc-heading-level-5\"><ul class=\"ez-toc-list-level-5\"><li class=\"ez-toc-heading-level-5\"><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-4\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/learners-concepts-and-thinking\/conceptual-integration\/#Work_cited\" title=\"Work cited:\">Work cited:<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul><\/nav><\/div>\n\n<p>A topic in <a href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/learners-concepts-and-thinking\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Learners' conceptions and thinking<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\">\n\n\n\n<p><a class=\"glossaryLink cmtt_Site glossary\" aria-describedby=\"tt\" data-cmtooltip=\"&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;concepts&lt;\/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;&amp;quot;Concepts are mental entities..., and require mental activity to be subjectively accessed&amp;quot; (Taber, 2019). Concepts can be understood as mental representations used in differentiating different aspects of the world, and understood tocbe focused at the nodes of conceptual networks. If concepts are connected by a network of propositions then the content of a concept may be considered as the sum of all its associations.&amp;lt;em&amp;gt;Read about concepts&amp;lt;\/em&amp;gt;&amp;lt;br\/&amp;gt;&lt;\/div&gt;\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/reference\/site-glossary\/concepts\/\" target=\"_blank\" data-mobile-support=\"0\" data-gt-translate-attributes='[{\"attribute\":\"data-cmtooltip\", \"format\":\"html\"}]' tabindex=\"0\" role=\"link\" data-bgcolor=\"#e8e8e8\" data-tcolor=\"#73874d\">Concepts<\/a> are linked into larger conceptual structures. (<a href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/learners-concepts-and-thinking\/conceptual-structure\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Read about conceptual structure here<\/a>.) These structures may show different levels of integration, depending upon the extent of linking between the <a class=\"glossaryLink cmtt_Site glossary\" aria-describedby=\"tt\" data-cmtooltip=\"&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;concepts&lt;\/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;&amp;quot;Concepts are mental entities..., and require mental activity to be subjectively accessed&amp;quot; (Taber, 2019). Concepts can be understood as mental representations used in differentiating different aspects of the world, and understood tocbe focused at the nodes of conceptual networks. If concepts are connected by a network of propositions then the content of a concept may be considered as the sum of all its associations.&amp;lt;em&amp;gt;Read about concepts&amp;lt;\/em&amp;gt;&amp;lt;br\/&amp;gt;&lt;\/div&gt;\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/reference\/site-glossary\/concepts\/\" target=\"_blank\" data-mobile-support=\"0\" data-gt-translate-attributes='[{\"attribute\":\"data-cmtooltip\", \"format\":\"html\"}]' tabindex=\"0\" role=\"link\" data-bgcolor=\"#e8e8e8\" data-tcolor=\"#73874d\">concepts<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-pullquote\"><blockquote><p>&quot;In order that thinking might not degenerate into 'metaphysics', or into empty talk, it is only required that enough propositions of the conceptual system be firmly enough connected with sensory experiences and that <strong>the conceptional system, in view of its task of ordering and surveying sense experience, should show as much unity and parsimony as possible<\/strong>.&quot;<\/p><cite><a class=\"glossaryLink cmtt_Biographical notes\"  aria-describedby=\"tt\"  data-cmtooltip=\"&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Einstein, Albert&lt;\/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;Albert Einstein (1879 - 1955) was a theoretical physicist most famous for proposing the special theory of relativity and the general theory of relatively: theories were largely considered counter-intuitive and which contradicted ideas that had been strongly held and considered well founded for&nbsp; almost two centuries. The special theory suggested that light was always observed to have the same speed (invariance) in a vacuum or in a particular medium, regardless of the speed of the observer (effectively suggesting the principle of relativity of Galileo was only an approximation that work well below light speeds. The general theory suggested that what we experience as gravity can be understood as the effect of mass on the very geometry of space-time.Einstein was awarded the Novel prize for his work in the photoelectric effect which assumed that for some purposes light had to be understood as if a series of packets (quanta) rather than seen as a wave. Again, this was contrary to common scientific thinking that light was best understood as a wave.Einstein was famous for having been poor at school and not being good at maths (both vast exaggerations), for having made major contributions to science whilst working as a patent examiner having not been able to obtain a suitable academic&nbsp; position; for having a major role in persuading the U.S. government to develop an atomic bomb during World War 2 (fearing Germany would build its own atomic weapons) , and later working for peace. He was seen as an eccentric (not wearing socks, and having untidy hair). Although originally a German, as a Jew Einstein was subject to the anti-Semitic Nazi policies of the Third Reich and escaped to Norfolk, England, then the U.S.Einstein was not an orthodox Jew in terms of observance, and is sometimes said to be an atheist, but he seems to have held to a notion of God as an abstract guiding power behind the cosmos and did not reject all religion (&amp;quot;&amp;lt;em&amp;gt;&amp;lt;strong&amp;gt;science without religion is lame, religion without science is blind&amp;lt;\/strong&amp;gt;&amp;lt;\/em&amp;gt;&amp;quot;). He famously questioned the common interpretations of quantum mechanics as suggesting fundamentally the world follows statistical laws, being quoted as arguing&amp;quot;&amp;lt;em&amp;gt;&amp;lt;strong&amp;gt;God does not play dice&amp;lt;\/strong&amp;gt; &amp;lt;strong&amp;gt;with the Universe&amp;lt;\/strong&amp;gt;&amp;lt;\/em&amp;gt;&amp;quot;.&lt;\/div&gt;\"  href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/reference\/biographical-notes\/einstein-albert\/\"  target=\"_blank\"  data-mobile-support=\"0\"  data-gt-translate-attributes='[{\"attribute\":\"data-cmtooltip\", \"format\":\"html\"}]' tabindex='0' role='link'data-bgcolor=\"#d9eef7\"data-tcolor=\"#933100\">Albert<\/a> <a class=\"glossaryLink cmtt_Biographical notes\" aria-describedby=\"tt\" data-cmtooltip=\"&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Einstein, Albert&lt;\/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;Albert Einstein (1879 - 1955) was a theoretical physicist most famous for proposing the special theory of relativity and the general theory of relatively: theories were largely considered counter-intuitive and which contradicted ideas that had been strongly held and considered well founded for&nbsp; almost two centuries. The special theory suggested that light was always observed to have the same speed (invariance) in a vacuum or in a particular medium, regardless of the speed of the observer (effectively suggesting the principle of relativity of Galileo was only an approximation that work well below light speeds. The general theory suggested that what we experience as gravity can be understood as the effect of mass on the very geometry of space-time.Einstein was awarded the Novel prize for his work in the photoelectric effect which assumed that for some purposes light had to be understood as if a series of packets (quanta) rather than seen as a wave. Again, this was contrary to common scientific thinking that light was best understood as a wave.Einstein was famous for having been poor at school and not being good at maths (both vast exaggerations), for having made major contributions to science whilst working as a patent examiner having not been able to obtain a suitable academic&nbsp; position; for having a major role in persuading the U.S. government to develop an atomic bomb during World War 2 (fearing Germany would build its own atomic weapons) , and later working for peace. He was seen as an eccentric (not wearing socks, and having untidy hair). Although originally a German, as a Jew Einstein was subject to the anti-Semitic Nazi policies of the Third Reich and escaped to Norfolk, England, then the U.S.Einstein was not an orthodox Jew in terms of observance, and is sometimes said to be an atheist, but he seems to have held to a notion of God as an abstract guiding power behind the cosmos and did not reject all religion (&amp;quot;&amp;lt;em&amp;gt;&amp;lt;strong&amp;gt;science without religion is lame, religion without science is blind&amp;lt;\/strong&amp;gt;&amp;lt;\/em&amp;gt;&amp;quot;). He famously questioned the common interpretations of quantum mechanics as suggesting fundamentally the world follows statistical laws, being quoted as arguing&amp;quot;&amp;lt;em&amp;gt;&amp;lt;strong&amp;gt;God does not play dice&amp;lt;\/strong&amp;gt; &amp;lt;strong&amp;gt;with the Universe&amp;lt;\/strong&amp;gt;&amp;lt;\/em&amp;gt;&amp;quot;.&lt;\/div&gt;\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/reference\/biographical-notes\/einstein-albert\/\" target=\"_blank\" data-mobile-support=\"0\" data-gt-translate-attributes='[{\"attribute\":\"data-cmtooltip\", \"format\":\"html\"}]' tabindex=\"0\" role=\"link\" data-bgcolor=\"#d9eef7\" data-tcolor=\"#933100\">Einstein<\/a>, 1994<\/cite><\/blockquote><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Generally speaking, expertise is associated with greater <a class=\"glossaryLink cmtt_Site glossary\" aria-describedby=\"tt\" data-cmtooltip=\"&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;conceptual integration&lt;\/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;the linking together of related concepts into larger frameworks or nets of ideas - something of value in science, and in learningVisit page: Conceptual integration&lt;\/div&gt;\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/reference\/site-glossary\/conceptual-integration\/\" target=\"_blank\" data-mobile-support=\"0\" data-gt-translate-attributes='[{\"attribute\":\"data-cmtooltip\", \"format\":\"html\"}]' tabindex=\"0\" role=\"link\" data-bgcolor=\"#e8e8e8\" data-tcolor=\"#73874d\">conceptual integration<\/a>, and novices then to have less well integrated conceptual structures. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Developments_in_science\"><\/span>Developments in science<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>One aspect of the progress of science, has been a shift towards greater <a class=\"glossaryLink cmtt_Site glossary\" aria-describedby=\"tt\" data-cmtooltip=\"&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;conceptual integration&lt;\/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;the linking together of related concepts into larger frameworks or nets of ideas - something of value in science, and in learningVisit page: Conceptual integration&lt;\/div&gt;\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/reference\/site-glossary\/conceptual-integration\/\" target=\"_blank\" data-mobile-support=\"0\" data-gt-translate-attributes='[{\"attribute\":\"data-cmtooltip\", \"format\":\"html\"}]' tabindex=\"0\" role=\"link\" data-bgcolor=\"#e8e8e8\" data-tcolor=\"#73874d\">conceptual integration<\/a>. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<blockquote class=\"wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow\">\n<p>&quot;The scientific way of forming <a class=\"glossaryLink cmtt_Site glossary\" aria-describedby=\"tt\" data-cmtooltip=\"&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;concepts&lt;\/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;&amp;quot;Concepts are mental entities..., and require mental activity to be subjectively accessed&amp;quot; (Taber, 2019). Concepts can be understood as mental representations used in differentiating different aspects of the world, and understood tocbe focused at the nodes of conceptual networks. If concepts are connected by a network of propositions then the content of a concept may be considered as the sum of all its associations.&amp;lt;em&amp;gt;Read about concepts&amp;lt;\/em&amp;gt;&amp;lt;br\/&amp;gt;&lt;\/div&gt;\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/reference\/site-glossary\/concepts\/\" target=\"_blank\" data-mobile-support=\"0\" data-gt-translate-attributes='[{\"attribute\":\"data-cmtooltip\", \"format\":\"html\"}]' tabindex=\"0\" role=\"link\" data-bgcolor=\"#e8e8e8\" data-tcolor=\"#73874d\">concepts<\/a> differs from that we use in our everyday life, not basically, but merely in the more precise definition of <a class=\"glossaryLink cmtt_Site glossary\" aria-describedby=\"tt\" data-cmtooltip=\"&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;concepts&lt;\/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;&amp;quot;Concepts are mental entities..., and require mental activity to be subjectively accessed&amp;quot; (Taber, 2019). Concepts can be understood as mental representations used in differentiating different aspects of the world, and understood tocbe focused at the nodes of conceptual networks. If concepts are connected by a network of propositions then the content of a concept may be considered as the sum of all its associations.&amp;lt;em&amp;gt;Read about concepts&amp;lt;\/em&amp;gt;&amp;lt;br\/&amp;gt;&lt;\/div&gt;\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/reference\/site-glossary\/concepts\/\" target=\"_blank\" data-mobile-support=\"0\" data-gt-translate-attributes='[{\"attribute\":\"data-cmtooltip\", \"format\":\"html\"}]' tabindex=\"0\" role=\"link\" data-bgcolor=\"#e8e8e8\" data-tcolor=\"#73874d\">concepts<\/a> and conclusions; more painstaking and systematic choice of <a class=\"glossaryLink cmtt_Site glossary\" aria-describedby=\"tt\" data-cmtooltip=\"&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;experiment&lt;\/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;An experiment is a type of research methodology designed to test a hypothesis by setting up a controlled intervention&amp;lt;em&amp;gt;Read about experiments&amp;lt;\/em&amp;gt;&amp;lt;br\/&amp;gt;&lt;\/div&gt;\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/reference\/site-glossary\/experiment\/\" target=\"_blank\" data-mobile-support=\"0\" data-gt-translate-attributes='[{\"attribute\":\"data-cmtooltip\", \"format\":\"html\"}]' tabindex=\"0\" role=\"link\" data-bgcolor=\"#e8e8e8\" data-tcolor=\"#73874d\">experimental<\/a> material; and <strong>greater logical economy<\/strong>. By this last we mean that the effort <strong>to reduce all <a class=\"glossaryLink cmtt_Site glossary\" aria-describedby=\"tt\" data-cmtooltip=\"&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;concepts&lt;\/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;&amp;quot;Concepts are mental entities..., and require mental activity to be subjectively accessed&amp;quot; (Taber, 2019). Concepts can be understood as mental representations used in differentiating different aspects of the world, and understood tocbe focused at the nodes of conceptual networks. If concepts are connected by a network of propositions then the content of a concept may be considered as the sum of all its associations.&amp;lt;em&amp;gt;Read about concepts&amp;lt;\/em&amp;gt;&amp;lt;br\/&amp;gt;&lt;\/div&gt;\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/reference\/site-glossary\/concepts\/\" target=\"_blank\" data-mobile-support=\"0\" data-gt-translate-attributes='[{\"attribute\":\"data-cmtooltip\", \"format\":\"html\"}]' tabindex=\"0\" role=\"link\" data-bgcolor=\"#e8e8e8\" data-tcolor=\"#73874d\">concepts<\/a> and correlations to as few as possible logically independent basic <a class=\"glossaryLink cmtt_Site glossary\" aria-describedby=\"tt\" data-cmtooltip=\"&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;concepts&lt;\/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;&amp;quot;Concepts are mental entities..., and require mental activity to be subjectively accessed&amp;quot; (Taber, 2019). Concepts can be understood as mental representations used in differentiating different aspects of the world, and understood tocbe focused at the nodes of conceptual networks. If concepts are connected by a network of propositions then the content of a concept may be considered as the sum of all its associations.&amp;lt;em&amp;gt;Read about concepts&amp;lt;\/em&amp;gt;&amp;lt;br\/&amp;gt;&lt;\/div&gt;\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/reference\/site-glossary\/concepts\/\" target=\"_blank\" data-mobile-support=\"0\" data-gt-translate-attributes='[{\"attribute\":\"data-cmtooltip\", \"format\":\"html\"}]' tabindex=\"0\" role=\"link\" data-bgcolor=\"#e8e8e8\" data-tcolor=\"#73874d\">concepts<\/a> and axioms<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>&hellip;from the very beginning there has always been present the attempt to find a unifying theoretical basis for all these single sciences, consisting of a minimum of <a class=\"glossaryLink cmtt_Site glossary\" aria-describedby=\"tt\" data-cmtooltip=\"&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;concepts&lt;\/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;&amp;quot;Concepts are mental entities..., and require mental activity to be subjectively accessed&amp;quot; (Taber, 2019). Concepts can be understood as mental representations used in differentiating different aspects of the world, and understood tocbe focused at the nodes of conceptual networks. If concepts are connected by a network of propositions then the content of a concept may be considered as the sum of all its associations.&amp;lt;em&amp;gt;Read about concepts&amp;lt;\/em&amp;gt;&amp;lt;br\/&amp;gt;&lt;\/div&gt;\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/reference\/site-glossary\/concepts\/\" target=\"_blank\" data-mobile-support=\"0\" data-gt-translate-attributes='[{\"attribute\":\"data-cmtooltip\", \"format\":\"html\"}]' tabindex=\"0\" role=\"link\" data-bgcolor=\"#e8e8e8\" data-tcolor=\"#73874d\">concepts<\/a> and fundamental relationships, from which all the <a class=\"glossaryLink cmtt_Site glossary\" aria-describedby=\"tt\" data-cmtooltip=\"&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;concepts&lt;\/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;&amp;quot;Concepts are mental entities..., and require mental activity to be subjectively accessed&amp;quot; (Taber, 2019). Concepts can be understood as mental representations used in differentiating different aspects of the world, and understood tocbe focused at the nodes of conceptual networks. If concepts are connected by a network of propositions then the content of a concept may be considered as the sum of all its associations.&amp;lt;em&amp;gt;Read about concepts&amp;lt;\/em&amp;gt;&amp;lt;br\/&amp;gt;&lt;\/div&gt;\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/reference\/site-glossary\/concepts\/\" target=\"_blank\" data-mobile-support=\"0\" data-gt-translate-attributes='[{\"attribute\":\"data-cmtooltip\", \"format\":\"html\"}]' tabindex=\"0\" role=\"link\" data-bgcolor=\"#e8e8e8\" data-tcolor=\"#73874d\">concepts<\/a> and relationships of the single disciplines might be derived by a logical process.&quot;<\/p>\n<cite><a class=\"glossaryLink cmtt_Biographical notes\" aria-describedby=\"tt\" data-cmtooltip=\"&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Einstein, Albert&lt;\/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;Albert Einstein (1879 - 1955) was a theoretical physicist most famous for proposing the special theory of relativity and the general theory of relatively: theories were largely considered counter-intuitive and which contradicted ideas that had been strongly held and considered well founded for&nbsp; almost two centuries. The special theory suggested that light was always observed to have the same speed (invariance) in a vacuum or in a particular medium, regardless of the speed of the observer (effectively suggesting the principle of relativity of Galileo was only an approximation that work well below light speeds. The general theory suggested that what we experience as gravity can be understood as the effect of mass on the very geometry of space-time.Einstein was awarded the Novel prize for his work in the photoelectric effect which assumed that for some purposes light had to be understood as if a series of packets (quanta) rather than seen as a wave. Again, this was contrary to common scientific thinking that light was best understood as a wave.Einstein was famous for having been poor at school and not being good at maths (both vast exaggerations), for having made major contributions to science whilst working as a patent examiner having not been able to obtain a suitable academic&nbsp; position; for having a major role in persuading the U.S. government to develop an atomic bomb during World War 2 (fearing Germany would build its own atomic weapons) , and later working for peace. He was seen as an eccentric (not wearing socks, and having untidy hair). Although originally a German, as a Jew Einstein was subject to the anti-Semitic Nazi policies of the Third Reich and escaped to Norfolk, England, then the U.S.Einstein was not an orthodox Jew in terms of observance, and is sometimes said to be an atheist, but he seems to have held to a notion of God as an abstract guiding power behind the cosmos and did not reject all religion (&amp;quot;&amp;lt;em&amp;gt;&amp;lt;strong&amp;gt;science without religion is lame, religion without science is blind&amp;lt;\/strong&amp;gt;&amp;lt;\/em&amp;gt;&amp;quot;). He famously questioned the common interpretations of quantum mechanics as suggesting fundamentally the world follows statistical laws, being quoted as arguing&amp;quot;&amp;lt;em&amp;gt;&amp;lt;strong&amp;gt;God does not play dice&amp;lt;\/strong&amp;gt; &amp;lt;strong&amp;gt;with the Universe&amp;lt;\/strong&amp;gt;&amp;lt;\/em&amp;gt;&amp;quot;.&lt;\/div&gt;\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/reference\/biographical-notes\/einstein-albert\/\" target=\"_blank\" data-mobile-support=\"0\" data-gt-translate-attributes='[{\"attribute\":\"data-cmtooltip\", \"format\":\"html\"}]' tabindex=\"0\" role=\"link\" data-bgcolor=\"#d9eef7\" data-tcolor=\"#933100\">Einstein<\/a>, 1940<\/cite><\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n<p>For example, in physics, Maxwell brought together electricity, magnetism and light under a common <a class=\"glossaryLink cmtt_Site glossary\" aria-describedby=\"tt\" data-cmtooltip=\"&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;conceptual framework&lt;\/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;a way of understanding a topic\/phenomenon - usually reserved for more extensive mental structures than single conceptionsRead about &amp;#039;Conceptual frameworks&amp;#039; in research methodology&lt;\/div&gt;\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/reference\/site-glossary\/conceptual-framework\/\" target=\"_blank\" data-mobile-support=\"0\" data-gt-translate-attributes='[{\"attribute\":\"data-cmtooltip\", \"format\":\"html\"}]' tabindex=\"0\" role=\"link\" data-bgcolor=\"#e8e8e8\" data-tcolor=\"#73874d\">conceptual framework<\/a>. In biology, natural selection has provided an integrating framework for consider all of the world's biota. In chemistry the periodic table allowed systematisation of knowledge that helps integrate chemistry. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\">\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-pullquote\"><blockquote><p>&quot;Although it is true that it is the goal of science to discover rules which permit the association and foretelling of facts, this is not its only aim. It also seeks to reduce the connections discovered to the smallest possible number of mutually independent conceptual elements. It is in this striving after the rational unification of the manifold that it encounters its greatest successes&hellip;&quot;<\/p><cite><a class=\"glossaryLink cmtt_Biographical notes\"  aria-describedby=\"tt\"  data-cmtooltip=\"&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Einstein, Albert&lt;\/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;Albert Einstein (1879 - 1955) was a theoretical physicist most famous for proposing the special theory of relativity and the general theory of relatively: theories were largely considered counter-intuitive and which contradicted ideas that had been strongly held and considered well founded for&nbsp; almost two centuries. The special theory suggested that light was always observed to have the same speed (invariance) in a vacuum or in a particular medium, regardless of the speed of the observer (effectively suggesting the principle of relativity of Galileo was only an approximation that work well below light speeds. The general theory suggested that what we experience as gravity can be understood as the effect of mass on the very geometry of space-time.Einstein was awarded the Novel prize for his work in the photoelectric effect which assumed that for some purposes light had to be understood as if a series of packets (quanta) rather than seen as a wave. Again, this was contrary to common scientific thinking that light was best understood as a wave.Einstein was famous for having been poor at school and not being good at maths (both vast exaggerations), for having made major contributions to science whilst working as a patent examiner having not been able to obtain a suitable academic&nbsp; position; for having a major role in persuading the U.S. government to develop an atomic bomb during World War 2 (fearing Germany would build its own atomic weapons) , and later working for peace. He was seen as an eccentric (not wearing socks, and having untidy hair). Although originally a German, as a Jew Einstein was subject to the anti-Semitic Nazi policies of the Third Reich and escaped to Norfolk, England, then the U.S.Einstein was not an orthodox Jew in terms of observance, and is sometimes said to be an atheist, but he seems to have held to a notion of God as an abstract guiding power behind the cosmos and did not reject all religion (&amp;quot;&amp;lt;em&amp;gt;&amp;lt;strong&amp;gt;science without religion is lame, religion without science is blind&amp;lt;\/strong&amp;gt;&amp;lt;\/em&amp;gt;&amp;quot;). He famously questioned the common interpretations of quantum mechanics as suggesting fundamentally the world follows statistical laws, being quoted as arguing&amp;quot;&amp;lt;em&amp;gt;&amp;lt;strong&amp;gt;God does not play dice&amp;lt;\/strong&amp;gt; &amp;lt;strong&amp;gt;with the Universe&amp;lt;\/strong&amp;gt;&amp;lt;\/em&amp;gt;&amp;quot;.&lt;\/div&gt;\"  href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/reference\/biographical-notes\/einstein-albert\/\"  target=\"_blank\"  data-mobile-support=\"0\"  data-gt-translate-attributes='[{\"attribute\":\"data-cmtooltip\", \"format\":\"html\"}]' tabindex='0' role='link'data-bgcolor=\"#d9eef7\"data-tcolor=\"#933100\">Albert<\/a> <a class=\"glossaryLink cmtt_Biographical notes\" aria-describedby=\"tt\" data-cmtooltip=\"&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Einstein, Albert&lt;\/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;Albert Einstein (1879 - 1955) was a theoretical physicist most famous for proposing the special theory of relativity and the general theory of relatively: theories were largely considered counter-intuitive and which contradicted ideas that had been strongly held and considered well founded for&nbsp; almost two centuries. The special theory suggested that light was always observed to have the same speed (invariance) in a vacuum or in a particular medium, regardless of the speed of the observer (effectively suggesting the principle of relativity of Galileo was only an approximation that work well below light speeds. The general theory suggested that what we experience as gravity can be understood as the effect of mass on the very geometry of space-time.Einstein was awarded the Novel prize for his work in the photoelectric effect which assumed that for some purposes light had to be understood as if a series of packets (quanta) rather than seen as a wave. Again, this was contrary to common scientific thinking that light was best understood as a wave.Einstein was famous for having been poor at school and not being good at maths (both vast exaggerations), for having made major contributions to science whilst working as a patent examiner having not been able to obtain a suitable academic&nbsp; position; for having a major role in persuading the U.S. government to develop an atomic bomb during World War 2 (fearing Germany would build its own atomic weapons) , and later working for peace. He was seen as an eccentric (not wearing socks, and having untidy hair). Although originally a German, as a Jew Einstein was subject to the anti-Semitic Nazi policies of the Third Reich and escaped to Norfolk, England, then the U.S.Einstein was not an orthodox Jew in terms of observance, and is sometimes said to be an atheist, but he seems to have held to a notion of God as an abstract guiding power behind the cosmos and did not reject all religion (&amp;quot;&amp;lt;em&amp;gt;&amp;lt;strong&amp;gt;science without religion is lame, religion without science is blind&amp;lt;\/strong&amp;gt;&amp;lt;\/em&amp;gt;&amp;quot;). He famously questioned the common interpretations of quantum mechanics as suggesting fundamentally the world follows statistical laws, being quoted as arguing&amp;quot;&amp;lt;em&amp;gt;&amp;lt;strong&amp;gt;God does not play dice&amp;lt;\/strong&amp;gt; &amp;lt;strong&amp;gt;with the Universe&amp;lt;\/strong&amp;gt;&amp;lt;\/em&amp;gt;&amp;quot;.&lt;\/div&gt;\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/reference\/biographical-notes\/einstein-albert\/\" target=\"_blank\" data-mobile-support=\"0\" data-gt-translate-attributes='[{\"attribute\":\"data-cmtooltip\", \"format\":\"html\"}]' tabindex=\"0\" role=\"link\" data-bgcolor=\"#d9eef7\" data-tcolor=\"#933100\">Einstein<\/a>, 1939<\/cite><\/blockquote><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\">\n\n\n\n<p>A principle such as the conservation of energy is expected to apply across all of science, and some physicists see the possibility of a GUT (grand unifying theory) subsuming the four types of force (gravity as well as electromagnetism, and the weak force and the strong nuclear force)  as a kind of 'holy grail' of science.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Progression_in_learning\"><\/span>Progression in learning<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Therefore one feature we might expect to find in students' progression in  learning in science is to come to better integrate their <a class=\"glossaryLink cmtt_Site glossary\" aria-describedby=\"tt\" data-cmtooltip=\"&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;concepts&lt;\/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;&amp;quot;Concepts are mental entities..., and require mental activity to be subjectively accessed&amp;quot; (Taber, 2019). Concepts can be understood as mental representations used in differentiating different aspects of the world, and understood tocbe focused at the nodes of conceptual networks. If concepts are connected by a network of propositions then the content of a concept may be considered as the sum of all its associations.&amp;lt;em&amp;gt;Read about concepts&amp;lt;\/em&amp;gt;&amp;lt;br\/&amp;gt;&lt;\/div&gt;\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/reference\/site-glossary\/concepts\/\" target=\"_blank\" data-mobile-support=\"0\" data-gt-translate-attributes='[{\"attribute\":\"data-cmtooltip\", \"format\":\"html\"}]' tabindex=\"0\" role=\"link\" data-bgcolor=\"#e8e8e8\" data-tcolor=\"#73874d\">concepts<\/a>, find more coherence between different topics, and to recognise connections between different areas of science (such as recognising that not only is the Born-Haber cycle an example of Hess's law, but that this is also related to the conservation of energy).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Fragmentation_learning_impediments\"><\/span>Fragmentation learning impediments<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Learning science involves making a lot of connections. New teaching is normally intended to link with previously learned material, and often <a class=\"glossaryLink cmtt_Site glossary\" aria-describedby=\"tt\" data-cmtooltip=\"&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;prerequisite knowledge&lt;\/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;the knowledge necessary to make good sense of an new idea or concept that is to be learnt (for example, it would not be possble to fully understand the new concept &amp;#039;transition element&amp;#039; unless one already had an &amp;#039;element concept&amp;#039;&lt;\/div&gt;\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/reference\/site-glossary\/prerequisite-knowledge\/\" target=\"_blank\" data-mobile-support=\"0\" data-gt-translate-attributes='[{\"attribute\":\"data-cmtooltip\", \"format\":\"html\"}]' tabindex=\"0\" role=\"link\" data-bgcolor=\"#e8e8e8\" data-tcolor=\"#73874d\">prerequisite knowledge<\/a> which is necessary for making proper sense of the new ideas. Sometimes students do not make the expected links, and this my impede a full understanding of the <a class=\"glossaryLink cmtt_Site glossary\" aria-describedby=\"tt\" data-cmtooltip=\"&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;concepts&lt;\/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;&amp;quot;Concepts are mental entities..., and require mental activity to be subjectively accessed&amp;quot; (Taber, 2019). Concepts can be understood as mental representations used in differentiating different aspects of the world, and understood tocbe focused at the nodes of conceptual networks. If concepts are connected by a network of propositions then the content of a concept may be considered as the sum of all its associations.&amp;lt;em&amp;gt;Read about concepts&amp;lt;\/em&amp;gt;&amp;lt;br\/&amp;gt;&lt;\/div&gt;\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/reference\/site-glossary\/concepts\/\" target=\"_blank\" data-mobile-support=\"0\" data-gt-translate-attributes='[{\"attribute\":\"data-cmtooltip\", \"format\":\"html\"}]' tabindex=\"0\" role=\"link\" data-bgcolor=\"#e8e8e8\" data-tcolor=\"#73874d\">concepts<\/a> they have been taught. This is one kind of '<a class=\"glossaryLink cmtt_Site glossary\" aria-describedby=\"tt\" data-cmtooltip=\"&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;learning impediment&lt;\/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;A learning impediment (&amp;#039;learning bug&amp;#039;) is some condition or feature that impedes (block\/slows) intended learning.It may be unhelpful to see learning impediments as a flaw in the learner: they are better seen as bugs in the teaching-learning system, often due to a lack of match between the interpretive resources he teacher expects student to have available, and those they actually engage in the learning situation.&amp;lt;em&amp;gt;Read about the typology of learning impediments&amp;lt;\/em&amp;gt;&amp;lt;br\/&amp;gt;&lt;\/div&gt;\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/reference\/site-glossary\/learning-impediment\/\" target=\"_blank\" data-mobile-support=\"0\" data-gt-translate-attributes='[{\"attribute\":\"data-cmtooltip\", \"format\":\"html\"}]' tabindex=\"0\" role=\"link\" data-bgcolor=\"#e8e8e8\" data-tcolor=\"#73874d\">learning bug<\/a>' that occurs in the teaching-learning system where the associations the teacher assumes are already present in a learner's <a class=\"glossaryLink cmtt_Site glossary\" aria-describedby=\"tt\" data-cmtooltip=\"&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;conceptual structure&lt;\/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;the way in which different concepts are related through conceptual linkages - it can refer to an abstract structure of a topic - or to the way a person understands a topic&lt;\/div&gt;\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/reference\/site-glossary\/conceptual-structure\/\" target=\"_blank\" data-mobile-support=\"0\" data-gt-translate-attributes='[{\"attribute\":\"data-cmtooltip\", \"format\":\"html\"}]' tabindex=\"0\" role=\"link\" data-bgcolor=\"#e8e8e8\" data-tcolor=\"#73874d\">conceptual structure<\/a> are lacking &ndash; a '<a class=\"glossaryLink cmtt_Site glossary\" aria-describedby=\"tt\" data-cmtooltip=\"&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;fragmentation learning impediment&lt;\/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;a type of learning impediment where intended new learning is impeded because although the relevant prerequisite knowledge has been learned, the learner when the student does not recognise how their existing ideas are relevant to the new materialVisit page: The typology of learning impedimentsVisit page: Fragmentation learning impediments&lt;\/div&gt;\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/reference\/site-glossary\/fragmentation-learning-impediment\/\" target=\"_blank\" data-mobile-support=\"0\" data-gt-translate-attributes='[{\"attribute\":\"data-cmtooltip\", \"format\":\"html\"}]' tabindex=\"0\" role=\"link\" data-bgcolor=\"#e8e8e8\" data-tcolor=\"#73874d\">fragmentation learning impediment<\/a>'.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"has-text-align-right\">(<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/teaching-science\/diagnostic-assessment\/science-learning-doctors\/\" target=\"_blank\">Read about using diagnostic assessment in teaching to identify such 'bugs'<\/a>.)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/posts\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">posts<\/a> on this site include examples of such <a class=\"glossaryLink cmtt_Site glossary\" aria-describedby=\"tt\" data-cmtooltip=\"&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;fragmentation learning impediment&lt;\/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;a type of learning impediment where intended new learning is impeded because although the relevant prerequisite knowledge has been learned, the learner when the student does not recognise how their existing ideas are relevant to the new materialVisit page: The typology of learning impedimentsVisit page: Fragmentation learning impediments&lt;\/div&gt;\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/reference\/site-glossary\/fragmentation-learning-impediment\/\" target=\"_blank\" data-mobile-support=\"0\" data-gt-translate-attributes='[{\"attribute\":\"data-cmtooltip\", \"format\":\"html\"}]' tabindex=\"0\" role=\"link\" data-bgcolor=\"#e8e8e8\" data-tcolor=\"#73874d\">fragmentation learning impediments<\/a>, where students have not made the connections expected in their science learning.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\">\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Work_cited\"><\/span>Work cited:<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h5>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><a class=\"glossaryLink cmtt_Biographical notes\" aria-describedby=\"tt\" data-cmtooltip=\"&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Einstein, Albert&lt;\/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;Albert Einstein (1879 - 1955) was a theoretical physicist most famous for proposing the special theory of relativity and the general theory of relatively: theories were largely considered counter-intuitive and which contradicted ideas that had been strongly held and considered well founded for&nbsp; almost two centuries. The special theory suggested that light was always observed to have the same speed (invariance) in a vacuum or in a particular medium, regardless of the speed of the observer (effectively suggesting the principle of relativity of Galileo was only an approximation that work well below light speeds. The general theory suggested that what we experience as gravity can be understood as the effect of mass on the very geometry of space-time.Einstein was awarded the Novel prize for his work in the photoelectric effect which assumed that for some purposes light had to be understood as if a series of packets (quanta) rather than seen as a wave. Again, this was contrary to common scientific thinking that light was best understood as a wave.Einstein was famous for having been poor at school and not being good at maths (both vast exaggerations), for having made major contributions to science whilst working as a patent examiner having not been able to obtain a suitable academic&nbsp; position; for having a major role in persuading the U.S. government to develop an atomic bomb during World War 2 (fearing Germany would build its own atomic weapons) , and later working for peace. He was seen as an eccentric (not wearing socks, and having untidy hair). Although originally a German, as a Jew Einstein was subject to the anti-Semitic Nazi policies of the Third Reich and escaped to Norfolk, England, then the U.S.Einstein was not an orthodox Jew in terms of observance, and is sometimes said to be an atheist, but he seems to have held to a notion of God as an abstract guiding power behind the cosmos and did not reject all religion (&amp;quot;&amp;lt;em&amp;gt;&amp;lt;strong&amp;gt;science without religion is lame, religion without science is blind&amp;lt;\/strong&amp;gt;&amp;lt;\/em&amp;gt;&amp;quot;). He famously questioned the common interpretations of quantum mechanics as suggesting fundamentally the world follows statistical laws, being quoted as arguing&amp;quot;&amp;lt;em&amp;gt;&amp;lt;strong&amp;gt;God does not play dice&amp;lt;\/strong&amp;gt; &amp;lt;strong&amp;gt;with the Universe&amp;lt;\/strong&amp;gt;&amp;lt;\/em&amp;gt;&amp;quot;.&lt;\/div&gt;\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/reference\/biographical-notes\/einstein-albert\/\" target=\"_blank\" data-mobile-support=\"0\" data-gt-translate-attributes='[{\"attribute\":\"data-cmtooltip\", \"format\":\"html\"}]' tabindex=\"0\" role=\"link\" data-bgcolor=\"#d9eef7\" data-tcolor=\"#933100\">Einstein, Albert<\/a> (1939\/1994), Science and religion. In <strong><em>Ideas and Opinions<\/em><\/strong>, New York: The Modern Library.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a class=\"glossaryLink cmtt_Biographical notes\" aria-describedby=\"tt\" data-cmtooltip=\"&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Einstein, Albert&lt;\/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;Albert Einstein (1879 - 1955) was a theoretical physicist most famous for proposing the special theory of relativity and the general theory of relatively: theories were largely considered counter-intuitive and which contradicted ideas that had been strongly held and considered well founded for&nbsp; almost two centuries. The special theory suggested that light was always observed to have the same speed (invariance) in a vacuum or in a particular medium, regardless of the speed of the observer (effectively suggesting the principle of relativity of Galileo was only an approximation that work well below light speeds. The general theory suggested that what we experience as gravity can be understood as the effect of mass on the very geometry of space-time.Einstein was awarded the Novel prize for his work in the photoelectric effect which assumed that for some purposes light had to be understood as if a series of packets (quanta) rather than seen as a wave. Again, this was contrary to common scientific thinking that light was best understood as a wave.Einstein was famous for having been poor at school and not being good at maths (both vast exaggerations), for having made major contributions to science whilst working as a patent examiner having not been able to obtain a suitable academic&nbsp; position; for having a major role in persuading the U.S. government to develop an atomic bomb during World War 2 (fearing Germany would build its own atomic weapons) , and later working for peace. He was seen as an eccentric (not wearing socks, and having untidy hair). Although originally a German, as a Jew Einstein was subject to the anti-Semitic Nazi policies of the Third Reich and escaped to Norfolk, England, then the U.S.Einstein was not an orthodox Jew in terms of observance, and is sometimes said to be an atheist, but he seems to have held to a notion of God as an abstract guiding power behind the cosmos and did not reject all religion (&amp;quot;&amp;lt;em&amp;gt;&amp;lt;strong&amp;gt;science without religion is lame, religion without science is blind&amp;lt;\/strong&amp;gt;&amp;lt;\/em&amp;gt;&amp;quot;). He famously questioned the common interpretations of quantum mechanics as suggesting fundamentally the world follows statistical laws, being quoted as arguing&amp;quot;&amp;lt;em&amp;gt;&amp;lt;strong&amp;gt;God does not play dice&amp;lt;\/strong&amp;gt; &amp;lt;strong&amp;gt;with the Universe&amp;lt;\/strong&amp;gt;&amp;lt;\/em&amp;gt;&amp;quot;.&lt;\/div&gt;\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/reference\/biographical-notes\/einstein-albert\/\" target=\"_blank\" data-mobile-support=\"0\" data-gt-translate-attributes='[{\"attribute\":\"data-cmtooltip\", \"format\":\"html\"}]' tabindex=\"0\" role=\"link\" data-bgcolor=\"#d9eef7\" data-tcolor=\"#933100\">Einstein, Albert<\/a> (1940\/1994) The fundamentals of theoretical physics. In <strong><em>Ideas and Opinions<\/em><\/strong>, New York: The Modern Library.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a class=\"glossaryLink cmtt_Biographical notes\" aria-describedby=\"tt\" data-cmtooltip=\"&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Einstein, Albert&lt;\/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;Albert Einstein (1879 - 1955) was a theoretical physicist most famous for proposing the special theory of relativity and the general theory of relatively: theories were largely considered counter-intuitive and which contradicted ideas that had been strongly held and considered well founded for&nbsp; almost two centuries. The special theory suggested that light was always observed to have the same speed (invariance) in a vacuum or in a particular medium, regardless of the speed of the observer (effectively suggesting the principle of relativity of Galileo was only an approximation that work well below light speeds. The general theory suggested that what we experience as gravity can be understood as the effect of mass on the very geometry of space-time.Einstein was awarded the Novel prize for his work in the photoelectric effect which assumed that for some purposes light had to be understood as if a series of packets (quanta) rather than seen as a wave. Again, this was contrary to common scientific thinking that light was best understood as a wave.Einstein was famous for having been poor at school and not being good at maths (both vast exaggerations), for having made major contributions to science whilst working as a patent examiner having not been able to obtain a suitable academic&nbsp; position; for having a major role in persuading the U.S. government to develop an atomic bomb during World War 2 (fearing Germany would build its own atomic weapons) , and later working for peace. He was seen as an eccentric (not wearing socks, and having untidy hair). Although originally a German, as a Jew Einstein was subject to the anti-Semitic Nazi policies of the Third Reich and escaped to Norfolk, England, then the U.S.Einstein was not an orthodox Jew in terms of observance, and is sometimes said to be an atheist, but he seems to have held to a notion of God as an abstract guiding power behind the cosmos and did not reject all religion (&amp;quot;&amp;lt;em&amp;gt;&amp;lt;strong&amp;gt;science without religion is lame, religion without science is blind&amp;lt;\/strong&amp;gt;&amp;lt;\/em&amp;gt;&amp;quot;). He famously questioned the common interpretations of quantum mechanics as suggesting fundamentally the world follows statistical laws, being quoted as arguing&amp;quot;&amp;lt;em&amp;gt;&amp;lt;strong&amp;gt;God does not play dice&amp;lt;\/strong&amp;gt; &amp;lt;strong&amp;gt;with the Universe&amp;lt;\/strong&amp;gt;&amp;lt;\/em&amp;gt;&amp;quot;.&lt;\/div&gt;\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/reference\/biographical-notes\/einstein-albert\/\" target=\"_blank\" data-mobile-support=\"0\" data-gt-translate-attributes='[{\"attribute\":\"data-cmtooltip\", \"format\":\"html\"}]' tabindex=\"0\" role=\"link\" data-bgcolor=\"#d9eef7\" data-tcolor=\"#933100\">Einstein, Albert<\/a> (1994), Remarks on Bertrand Russell's theory of knowledge. In <strong><em>Ideas and Opinions<\/em><\/strong>, New York: The Modern Library.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>A topic in Learners' conceptions and thinking <a class=\"glossaryLink cmtt_Site glossary\" aria-describedby=\"tt\" data-cmtooltip=\"&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;concepts&lt;\/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;&amp;quot;Concepts are mental entities..., and require mental activity to be subjectively accessed&amp;quot; (Taber, 2019). Concepts can be understood as mental representations used in differentiating different aspects of the world, and understood tocbe focused at the nodes of conceptual networks. If concepts are connected by a network of propositions then the content of a concept may be considered as the sum of all its associations.&amp;lt;em&amp;gt;Read about concepts&amp;lt;\/em&amp;gt;&amp;lt;br\/&amp;gt;&lt;\/div&gt;\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/reference\/site-glossary\/concepts\/\" target=\"_blank\" data-mobile-support=\"0\" data-gt-translate-attributes='[{\"attribute\":\"data-cmtooltip\", \"format\":\"html\"}]' tabindex=\"0\" role=\"link\" data-bgcolor=\"#e8e8e8\" data-tcolor=\"#73874d\">Concepts<\/a> are linked into larger conceptual structures. (Read about <a class=\"glossaryLink cmtt_Site glossary\" aria-describedby=\"tt\" data-cmtooltip=\"&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;conceptual structure&lt;\/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;the way in which different concepts are related through conceptual linkages - it can refer to an abstract structure of a topic - or to the way a person understands a topic&lt;\/div&gt;\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/reference\/site-glossary\/conceptual-structure\/\" target=\"_blank\" data-mobile-support=\"0\" data-gt-translate-attributes='[{\"attribute\":\"data-cmtooltip\", \"format\":\"html\"}]' tabindex=\"0\" role=\"link\" data-bgcolor=\"#e8e8e8\" data-tcolor=\"#73874d\">conceptual structure<\/a> here.) These structures may show different levels of integration, depending upon the extent of linking between the <a class=\"glossaryLink cmtt_Site glossary\" aria-describedby=\"tt\" data-cmtooltip=\"&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;concepts&lt;\/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;&amp;quot;Concepts are mental entities..., and require mental activity to be subjectively accessed&amp;quot; (Taber, 2019). Concepts can be understood as mental representations used in differentiating different aspects of the world, and understood tocbe focused at the nodes of conceptual networks. If concepts are connected by a network of propositions then the content of a concept may be considered as the sum of all its associations.&amp;lt;em&amp;gt;Read about concepts&amp;lt;\/em&amp;gt;&amp;lt;br\/&amp;gt;&lt;\/div&gt;\" href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/reference\/site-glossary\/concepts\/\" target=\"_blank\" data-mobile-support=\"0\" data-gt-translate-attributes='[{\"attribute\":\"data-cmtooltip\", \"format\":\"html\"}]' tabindex=\"0\" role=\"link\" data-bgcolor=\"#e8e8e8\" data-tcolor=\"#73874d\">concepts<\/a>. &quot;In order that thinking might not degenerate into 'metaphysics', or into empty talk, it is only required that enough &hellip; <a href=\"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/learners-concepts-and-thinking\/conceptual-integration\/\" class=\"more-link\">Continue reading<span class=\"screen-reader-text\"> \"Conceptual integration\"<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":2,"featured_media":0,"parent":186,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false,"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-1628","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"jetpack_likes_enabled":false,"jetpack-related-posts":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/1628","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/2"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=1628"}],"version-history":[{"count":4,"href":"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/1628\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":29053,"href":"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/1628\/revisions\/29053"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/186"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/science-education-research.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1628"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}