Category: instrumentation

(But 'all other things' are seldom equal)

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Keith S. Taber

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I came across an interesting journal article that reported a quasi-experimental study where different groups of students studied the same topic for different periods of time. One group was given 3 half-hour lessons, another group 5 half-hour lessons, and the third group 8 half-hour lessons. Then they were tested on the topic they had been studying. The researchers found that the average group performance was substantially different across the different conditions. This was tested statistically, but the results were clear enough to be quite impressive when presented visually (as I have below).

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These results seem pretty clear cut. If this research could be replicated in diverse contexts then the findings could have great significance.

• Is your manager trying to cut course hours to save budget?
• Does your school want you to teach 'triple science' in a curriculum slot intended for 'double science'?
• Does your child say they have done enough homework?

Research evidence suggests that, ceteris paribus, learners achieve more by spending more time studying.

Ceteris paribus?

That is ceteris paribus (no, it is not a newly discovered species of whale): all other things being equal. But of course, in the real world they seldom – if ever – are.

If you wondered about the motivation for a study designed to see whether more teaching led to more learning (hardly what Karl Popper would have classed as a suitable 'bold conjecture' on which to base productive research), then I should confess I am being disingenuous. The information I give above is based on the published research, but offers a rather different take on the study from that offered by the authors themselves.

An 'alternative interpretation' one might say.

How useful are DARTs as learning activities?

I came across this study when looking to see if there was any research on the effectiveness of DARTs in chemistry teaching. DARTs are directed activities related to text – that is text-based exercises designed to require learners to engage with content rather than just copy or read it. They have long been recommended, but I was not sure I had seen any published research on their use in science classrooms.

Read about using DARTs in teaching

Shamsulbahri and Zulkiply (2021) undertook a study that "examined the effect of Directed Activity Related to Texts (DARTs) and gender on student achievement in qualitative analysis in chemistry" (p.157). They considered their study to be a quasi-experiment.

An experiment…

Experiment is the favoured methodology in many areas of natural science, and, indeed, the double blind experiment is sometimes seen as the gold standard methodology in medicine – and when possible in the social sciences. This includes education, and certainly in science education the literature reports many, many educational experiments. However, doing experiments well in education is very tricky and many published studies have major methodological problems (Taber, 2019).

Read about experiments in education

…requires control of variables

As we teach in school science, fair testing requires careful control of variables.

So, if I suggest there are some issues that prevent a reader from being entirely confident in the conclusions that Shamsulbahri and Zulkiply reach in their paper, it should be borne in mind that I think it is almost impossible to do a rigorously 'fair' small-scale experiment in education. By small-scale, I mean the kind of study that involves a few classes of learners as opposed to studies that can enrol a large number of classes and randomly assign them to conditions. Even large scale randomised studies are usually compromised by factors that simply cannot be controlled in educational contexts (Taber, 2019) , and small scale studies are subject to additional, often (I would argue) insurmountable, 'challenges'.

The study is available on the web, open access, and the paper goes into a good deal of detail about the background to, and aspects of, the study. Here, I am focusing on a few points that relate to my wider concerns about the merits of experimental research into teaching, and there is much of potential interest in the paper that I am ignoring as not directly relevant to my specific argument here. In particular, the authors describe the different forms of DART they used in the study. As, inevitably (considering my stance on the intrinsic problems of small-scale experiments in education), the tone of this piece is critical, I would recommend readers to access the full paper and make up your own minds.

Not a predatory journal

I was not familiar with the journal in which this paper was published – the Malaysian Journal of Learning and Instruction. It describes itself as "a peer reviewed interdisciplinary journal with an international advisory board". It is an open access journal that charges authors for publication. However, the publication fees are modest (US$25 if authors are from countries that are members of The Association of Southeast Asian Nations, and US$50 otherwise). This is an order of magnitude less than is typical for some of the open-access journals that I have criticised here as being predatory – those which do not engage in meaningful peer review, and will publish some very low quality material as long as a fee is paid. 25 dollars seems a reasonable charge for the costs involved in publishing work, unlike the hefty fees charged by many of the less scrupulous journals.

Shamsulbahri and Zulkiply seem, then, to have published in a well-motivated journal and their paper has passed peer review. But this peer thinks that, like most small scale experiments into teaching, it is very hard to draw any solid conclusions from this work.

What do the authors conclude?

Shamsulbahri and Zulkiply argue that their study shows the value of DARTs activities in learning. I approach this work with a bias, as I also think DARTs can be very useful. I used different kinds of DARTs extensively in my teaching with 14-16 years olds when I worked in schools.

The authors claim their study,

"provides experimental evidence in support of the claim that the DARTs method has been beneficial as a pedagogical approach as it helps to enhance qualitative analysis learning in chemistry…

The present study however, has shown that the DARTs method facilitated better learning of the qualitative analysis component of chemistry when it was combined with the experimental method. Using the DARTs method only results in better learning of qualitative analysis component in chemistry, as compared with using the Experimental method only."

Shamsulbahri & Zulkiply, 2021

Yet, despite my bias, which leads me to suspect they are right, I do not think we can infer this much from their quasi-experiment.

I am going to separate out three claims in the quote above:

1. the DARTs method has been beneficial as a pedagogical approach as it helps to enhance qualitative analysis learning in chemistry
2. the DARTs method facilitated better learning of the qualitative analysis component of chemistry when it was combined with the [laboratory¹] method
3. the DARTs method [by itself] results in better learning of qualitative analysis component in chemistry, as compared with using the [laboratory] method only.

I am going to suggest that there are two weak claims here and one strong claim. The weak claims are reasonably well supported (but only as long as they are read strictly as presented and not assumed to extend beyond the study) but the strong claim is not.

Limitations of the experiment

I suggest there are several major limiations of this research design.

What population is represented in the study?

In a true experiment researchers would nominate the population of interest (say, for example, 14-16 year old school learners in Malaysia), and then randomly select participants from this population who would be randomly assigned to the different conditions being compared. Random selection and assignment cannot ensure that the groupings of participants are equivalent, nor that the samples genuinely represent the population; as by chance it could happen that, say, the most studious students are assigned to one condition and all the lazy students to an other – but that is very unlikely. Random selection and assignment means that there is strong statistical case to think the outcomes of the experiment probably represent (more or less) what would have happened on a larger scale had it been possible to include the whole population in the experiment.

Read about sampling in research

Obviously, researchers in small-scale experiments are very unlikely to be able to access full populations to sample. Shamsulbahri and Zulkiply did not – and it would be unreasonable to criticise them for this. But this does raise the question of whether what happens in their samples will reflect what would happen with other groups of students. Shamsulbahri and Zulkiply acknowledge their sample cannot be considered typical,

"One limitation of the present study would be the sample used; the participants were all from two local fully residential schools, which were schools for students with high academic performance."

Shamsulbahri & Zulkiply, 2021

So, we have to be careful about generalising from what happened in this specific experiment to what we might expect with different groups of learners. In that regard, two of the claims from the paper that I have highlighted (i.e., the weaker claims) do not directly imply these results can be generalised:

1. the DARTs method has been beneficial as a pedagogical approach…
2. the DARTs method facilitated better learning of the qualitative analysis component of chemistry when it was combined with the [laboratory] method

These are claims about what was found in the study – not inferences about what would happen in other circumstances.

Read about randomisation in studies

Equivalence at pretest?

When it is not possible to randomly assign participants to the different conditions then there is always the possibility that whatever process has been used to assign conditions to groups produces a bias. (An extreme case would be in a school that used setting, that is assigning students to teaching groups according to achievement, if one set was assigned to one condition, and another set to a different condition.)

In quasi-experiments on teaching it is usual to pre-test students and to present analysis to show that at the start of the experiment the groups 'are equivalent'. Of course, it is very unlikely two different classes would prove to be entriely equivalent on a pre-test, so often there is a judgement made of the test results being sufficiently similar across the conditions. In practice, in many published studies, authors settle for the very weak (and inadequate) test of not finding differences so great that would be very unlikely to occur by chance (Taber, 2019)!

Read about testing for equivalence

Shamsulbahri and Zulkiply did pretest all participants as a screening process to exclude any students who already had good subject knowledge in the topic (qualitative chemical analysis),

"Before the experimental manipulation began, all participants were given a pre-screening test (i.e., the Cation assessment test) with the intention of selecting only the most qualified participants, that is, those who had a low-level of knowledge on the topic….The participants who scored ten or below (out of a total mark of 30) were selected for the actual experimental manipulation. As it turned out, all 120 participants scored 10 and below (i.e., with an average of 3.66 out of 30 marks), which was the requirement that had been set, and thus they were selected for the actual experimental manipulation."

Shamsulbahri & Zulkiply, 2021

But the researchers do not report the mean results for the groups in the three conditions (laboratory¹; DARTs; {laboratory+DARTs}) or give any indication of how similar (or not) these were. Nor do these scores seem to have been included as a variable in the analysis of results. The authors seem to be assuming that as no students scored more than one-third marks in the pre-test, then any differences beteen groups at pre-test can be ignored. (This seems to suggest that scoring 30% or 0% can be considered the same level of prior knowledge in terms of the potential influence on further learning and subsequent post-test scores.) That does not seem a sound assumption.

"It is important to note that there was no issue of pre-test treatment interaction in the context of the present study. This has improved the external validity of the study, since all of the participants were given a pre-screening test before they got involved in the actual experimental manipulation, i.e., in one of the three instructional methods. Therefore, any differences observed in the participants' performance in the post-test later were due to the effect of the instructional method used in the experimental manipulation."

Shamsulbahri & Zulkiply, 2021 (emphasis added)

There seems to be a flaw in the logic here, as the authors seem to be equating demonstrating an absence of high scorers at pre-test with there being no differences between groups which might have influenced learning. ²

Units of analysis

In any research study, researchers need to be clear regarding what their 'unit of analysis' should be. In this case the extreme options seem to be:

• 120 units of analysis: 40 students in each of three conditions
• 3 units of analysis: one teaching group in each condition

The key question is whether individual learners can be considered as being subject to the treatment conditions independently of others assiged to the same condition.

"During the study phase, student participants from the three groups were instructed by their respective chemistry teachers to learn in pairs…"

Shamsulbahri & Zulkiply, 2021

There is a strong argument that when a group of students attend class together, and are taught together, and interact with each other during class, they strictly should not be considered as learning independently of each other. Anyone who has taught parallel classes that are supposedly equivalent will know that classes take on their own personalities as groups, and the behaviour and learning of individual students is influenced by the particular class ethos.

Read about units of analysis

So, rigorous research into class teaching pedagogy should not treat the individual learners as units of analysis – yet it often does. The reason is obvious – it is only possible to do statistical testing when the sample size is large enough, and in small scale educational experiments the sample size is never going to be large enough unless one…hm…pretends/imagines/considers/judges/assumes/hopes?, that each learner is independently subject to the assigned treatment without being substantially influenced by others in that condition.

So, Shamsulbahri and Zulkiply treated their participants as independent units of analysis and based on this find a statistically significant effect of treatment:

⎟laboratory⎢ vs. ⎟DARTs⎢ vs. ⎟laboratory+DARTs⎢.

That is questionable – but what if, for argument's sake, we accept this assumption that within a class of 40 students the learners can be considered not to influence each other (even their learning partner?) or the classroom more generally sufficiently to make a difference to others in the class?

A confounding variable?

Perhaps a more serious problem with the research design is that there is insufficient control of potentially relevant variables. In order to make a comparison of ⎟laboratory⎢ vs. ⎟DARTs⎢ vs. ⎟laboratory+DARTs⎢ then the only relevant difference between the three treatment conditions should be whether the students learn by laboratory activity, DARTs, or both. There should not be any other differences between the groups in the different treatments that might reasonably be expected to influence the outcomes.

Read about confounding variables

But the description of how groups were set up suggests this was not the case:

"….the researchers conducted a briefing session on the aims and experimental details of the study for the school's [schools'?] chemistry teachers…the researchers demonstrated and then guided the school's chemistry teachers in terms of the appropriate procedures to implement the DARTs instructional method (i.e., using the DARTs handout sheets)…The researcher also explained to the school's chemistry teachers the way to implement the combined method …

Participants were then classified into three groups: control group (experimental method), first treatment group (DARTs method) and second treatment group (Combination of experiment and DARTs method). There was an equal number of participants for each group (i.e., 40 participants) as well as gender distribution (i.e., 20 females and 20 males in each group). The control group consisted of the participants from School A, while both treatment groups consisted of participants from School B"

Shamsulbahri & Zulkiply, 2021

Several different teachers seems to have been involved in teaching the classes, and even if it is not entirely clear how the teaching was divided up, it is clear that the group that only undertook the laboratory activities were from a different school than those in the other two conditions.

If we think one teacher can be replaced by another without changing learning outcomes, and that schools are interchangeable such that we would expect exactly the same outcomes if we swapped a class of students from one school for a class from another school, then these variables are unimportant. If, however, we think the teacher doing the teaching and the school from which learners are sampled could reasonably make a difference to the learning achieved, then these are confounding variables which have not been properly controlled.

In my own experience, I do not think different teachers become equivalent even when their are briefed to teach in the same way, and I do not think we can assume schools are equivalent when providing students to participate in learning. These differences, then, undermine our ability to assign any differences in outcomes as due to the differences in pedagogy (that "any differences observed…were due to the effect of the instructional method used").

Another confounding variable

And then I come back to my starting point. Learners did not just experience different forms of pedagogy but also different amounts of teaching. The difference between 3 lessons and 5 lessons might in itself be a factor (that is, even if the pedagogy employed in those lessons had been the same), as might the difference between 5 lessons and 8 lessons. So, time spent studying must be seen as a likely confounding variable. Indeed, it is not just the amount of time, but also the number of lessons, as the brain processes learning between classes and what is learnt in one lesson can be reinforced when reviewed in the next. (So we could not just assume, for example, that students automatically learn the same amount from, say, two 60 min. classes and four 30 min. classes covering the same material.)

What can we conclude?

As with many experiments in science teaching, we can accept the results of Shamsulbahri and Zulkiply's study, in terms of what they found in the specific study context, but still not be able to draw strong conclusions of wider significance.

Is the DARTs method beneficial as a pedagogical approach?

I expect the answer to this question is yes, but we need to be careful in drawing this conclusion from the experiment. Certainly the two groups which undertook the DARTs activities outperformed the group which did not. Yet that group was drawn from a different school and taught by a different teacher or teachers. That could have explained why there was less learning. (I am not claiming this is so – the point is we have no way of knowing as different variables are conflated.) In any case, the two groups that did undertake the DARTs activity were both given more lessons and spent substantially longer studying the topic they were tested on, than the class that did not. We simply cannot make a fair comparison here with any confidence.

Did the DARTs method facilitate better learning when it was combined with laboratory work?

There is a stronger comparison here. We still do not know if the two groups were taught by the same teacher/teachers (which could make a difference) or indeed whether the two groups started from a very similar level of prior knowledge. But, at least the two groups were from the same school, and both experienced the same DARTs based instruction. Greater learning was achieved when students undertook laboratory work as well as undertaking DARTs activities compared with students who only undertook the DARTs activity.

The 'combined' group still had more teaching than the DARTs group, but that does not matter here in drawing a logical conclusion because the question being explored is of the form 'does additional teaching input provide additional value?' (Taber, 2019). The question here is not whether one type of pedagogy is better than the other, but simply whether also undertaking practical works adds something over just doing the paper based learning activities.

Read about levels of control in experimental design

As the sample of learners was not representative of any specfiic wider population, we cannot assume this result would generalise beyond the participants in the study, although we might reasonably expect this result would be found elsewhere. But that is because we might already assume that learning about a practical activity (qualitative chemical analysis) will be enhanced by adding some laboratory based study!

Does DARTs pedagogy produce more learning about qualitative analysis than laboratory activities?

Shamsulbahri and Zulkiply's third claim was bolder because it was framed as a generalisation: instruction through DARTs produces more learning about qualitative analysis than laboratory-based instruction. That seems quite a stretch from what the study clearly shows us.

What the research does show us with confidence is that a group of 40 students in one school taught by a particular teacher/teaching team with 5 lessons of a specific set of DARTs activities, performed better on a specific assessment instrument than a different group of 40 students in another school taught by a different teacher/teaching team through three lessons of laboratory work following a specific scheme of practical activities.

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a group of 40 students	performed better on a specific assessment instrument	than a different group of 40 students
in one school		in another school
taught by a particular teacher/teaching team		taught by a different teacher/teaching team
with 5 lessons		through 3 lessons
of a specific set of DARTs activities,		of laboratory work following a specific scheme of practical activities

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Test instrument bias?

Even if we thought the post-test used by Shamsulbahri and Zulkiply was perfectly valid as an assessment of topic knowledge, we might be concerned by knowing that learning is situated in a context – we better recall in a similar context to that in which we learned.

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So:

• should we be concerned that the form of assessment, a paper-based instrument, is closer in nature to the DARTs learning experience than the laboratory learning experience?

and, if so,

• might this suggest a bias in the measurement instrument towards one treatment (i.e., DARTs)

and, if so,

• might a laboratory-based assessment have favoured the group that did the laboratory based learning over the DARTs group, and led to different outcomes?

and, if so,

• which approach to assessment has more ecological validity in this case: which type of assessment activity is a more authentic way of testing learning about a laboratory-based activity like qualitative chemical analysis?

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Can we generalise?

As always with small scale experiments into teaching, we have to judge the extent to which the specifics of the study might prevent us from generalising the findings – to be able to assume they would generally apply elsewhere.³ Here, we are left to ask to what extent we can

• ignore any undisclosed difference between the groups in levels of prior learning;
• ignore any difference between the schools and their populations;
• ignore any differences in teacher(s) (competence, confidence, teaching style, rapport with classes, etc.);
• ignore any idiosyncrasies in the DARTs scheme of instruction;
• ignore any idiosyncrasies in the scheme of laboratory instruction;
• ignore any idiosyncrasies (and potential biases) in the assessment instrument and its marking scheme and their application;

And, if we decide we can put aside any concerns about any of those matters, we can safely assume that (in learning this topic at this level)

• 5 sessions of learning by DARTs is more effective than 3 sessions of laboratory learning.

Then we only have to decide if that is because

• (i) DARTs activities teach more about this topic at this level than laboratory activities, or
• (ii) whether some or all of the difference in learning outcomes is simply because 150 minutes of study (broken into five blocks) has more effect than 90 minutes of study (broken into three blocks).

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What do you think?

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Work cited:

• Shamsulbahri, M. M., & Zulkiply, N. (2021). Examining the effect of directed activity related to texts (DARTs) and gender on student achievement in qualitative analysis in chemistry. Malaysian Journal of Learning and Instruction, 18(1), 157-181. https://doi.org/10.32890/mjli2021.18.1.7
• Taber, K. S. (2019). Experimental research into teaching innovations: responding to methodological and ethical challenges. Studies in Science Education, 55(1), 69-119. doi:10.1080/03057267.2019.1658058 (Download the manuscript version of this paper.)

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Notes:

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¹ The authors refer to the conditions as

• Experimental control group
• DARTs
• combination of Experiment + DARTs

I am referring to the first group as 'laboratory' both because it not clear the students were doing any experiments (that is, testing hypotheses) as the practical activity was learning to undertake standard analytical tests, and, secondly, to avoid confusion (between the educational experiment and the laboratory practicals).

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² I think the reference to "no issue of pre-test treatment interaction" is probably meant to suggest that as all students took the same pre-test it will have had the same effect on all participants. But this not only ignores the potential effect of any differences in prior knowledge reflected in the pre-test scores that might influence subsequent learning, but also the effect of taking the pre-test cannot be assumed to be neutral if for some learners it merely told them they knew nothing about the topic, whilst for others it activated and so reinforced some prior knowledge in the subject. In principle, the interaction between prior knowledge and taking the pretest could have influenced learning at both cognitive and affective levels: that is, both in terms of consolidation of prior learning and cuing for the new learning; and in terms of a learner's confidence in, and attitude towards, learning the topic.

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³ Even when we do have a representative sample of a population to test, we can only infer that the outcomes of an experiment reflect what will be most likely for members (schools, learners, classes, teachers…) of the wider population. Individual differences are such that we can never say that what most probably is the case will always be the case.

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