Copernicus – Science-Education-Research

Rheticus

Georg Joachim de Porris or Rheticus (1514-1574) was a scholar (born in Austria) best known as a mathematician and astronomer, but who also was a physician among other activities.

He spent two years with Copernicus, studying under him. He later encouraged and supported Copernicus in arranging the publication of his long-delayed full account of his heliocentric model of the cosmos: [translated title] On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres. [A brief preliminary account of Copenricus's model had appeared in 1510 or soon after.] Rheticus also popularised Copernican ideas by publishing his own Narratio prima de libris revolutionum Copernici in 1540, making it entirely clear that he was discussing the ideas of Copernicus and not his own discoveries.

Rheticus went to Nürnberg to oversee the publication of On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres for the elderly Copernicus who lived in Frombork (Poland), but left before the book appeared as he was appointed to a position at the University of Leipzig. (The task was handed over to Andreas Osiander who was responsible for adding an unsigned preface claiming the book was intended as a model useful for calculation, but did not claim to be an accurate account of how the universe was actually organised.)

in 1552, Rheticus was accused of the rape of a young man, convicted (in his absence, as he had fled) of sodomy, and sentenced to be exiled from Leipzig for 101 years (in effect, for life). It was after this episode that he trained and worked as a medical practitioner.

bows and arrows used by Copernicus and Ptolemy were made of different materials

An example of extended metaphor in historical science writing,

"Furthermore, concerning my learned teacher [Copernicus] I should like you to hold the opinion and be fully convinced that for him there is nothing better or more important than walking in the footsteps of Ptolemy and following, as Ptolemy did, the ancients and those who were much earlier than himself. However, when he became aware that the phenomena, which control the astronomer, and mathematics compelled him to make certain assumptions even against his wishes, it was enough, he thought, if he aimed his arrows by the same method to the same target as Ptolemy, even though he employed a bow and arrows of far different type of material from Ptolemy's."
Rheticus (1959) The Narratio Prima (1539, Translated by. E. Rosen), in Three Copernican Treatises (Ed. E. Rosen) Dover Publications (pp.107-196).

This seems to be an analogy, except it is not made explicit how (i) the target, (ii) the method of aiming arrows (a bow), and (iii) the material used to make the bows and arrows map onto the science (perhaps understanding the structure of the universe; building models and comparing them with observational data; and the data of different precision and reliability available to Ptolemy and Copernicus?)

Read about metaphor in science

Read about examples of science metaphors

Many examples of science metaphors are listed in 'Creative comparisons: Making science familiar through language. An illustrative catalogue of figurative comparisons and analogies for science concepts'. Free Download.

earth rotates like a ball on a lathe

An example of simile in historical science writing,

"He [Copernicus] saw (as Aristotle also points out) that when one motion is assigned to the earth, it may properly have other motions, by analogy with the planets. He therefore decided to begin with the assumption that the earth has three motions, by far the most important of all.

For in the first place, having assumed the general arrangement of the universe described above, he showed that, enclosed by its poles within the lunar sphere, the earth, like a ball on a lathe, rotates from west to east, as God's will ordains; and that by this motion, the terrestrial globe produces day and night and the changing appearances of the heavens, according as it is turned toward the sun."
Rheticus (1959) The Narratio Prima (1539, Translated by. E. Rosen), in Three Copernican Treatises (Ed. E. Rosen) Dover Publications (pp.107-196).

Read about similes in science

Read about examples of science similes

Many examples of science similes are listed in 'Creative Comparisons: Making Science Familiar through Language. An illustrative catalogue of figurative comparisons and analogies for science concepts'. Free Download.

sun is like an emperor who does not hurry from city to city

A historical example of figurative language in making a scientific argument

"Under the commonly accepted principles of astronomy, it could be seen that all the celestial phenomena conform to the mean motion of the sun and that the entire harmony of the celestial motions is established and preserved under its control. Hence the sun was called by the ancients leader, governor of nature, and king. But whether it carries on this administration as God rules the entire universe, a rule excellently described by Aristotle in the De mundo, or whether, traversing the entire heaven so often and resting nowhere, it acts as God's administrator in nature, seems not yet altogether explained and settled. Which of these assumptions is preferable, I leave to be determined by geometers and philosophers (who are mathematically equipped). For in the trial and decision of such controversies, a verdict must be reached in accordance with not plausible opinions but mathematical laws (the court in which this case is heard). The former manner of rule has been set aside, the latter adopted. My teacher [Copernicus] is convinced, however, that the rejected method of the sun's rule in the realm of nature must be revived, but in such a way that the received and accepted method retains its place. For he is aware that in human affairs the emperor need not himself hurry from city to city in order to perform the duty imposed on him by God; and that the heart does not move to the head or feet or other parts of the body to sustain a living creature, but fulfills its function through other organs designed by God for that purpose.

Now my teacher concluded that the mean motion of the sun must be the sort of motion that is not only established by the imagination, as in the case of the other planets, but is self-caused, since it appears to be truly 'both choral dancer and choral leader'. He then showed that his opinion was sound and not inconsistent with the truth, for he saw that by his hypotheses the efficient cause of the uniform motion of the sun could be geometrically deduced and proved."
Rheticus (1959) The Narratio Prima (1539, Translated by. E. Rosen), in Three Copernican Treatises (Ed. E. Rosen) Dover Publications (pp.107-196).

Rheticus is here arguing for Copernicus's claim that the Earth moves around the Sun rather than (as appearances might suggest) the Sun moving around the Earth. Rheticus adopts the traditional metaphors (or perhaps it was seen as more than that at one time) as ther Sun as a 'leader', 'governor', and 'king', but develops the idea that an administrator (a shift that sees the Sun not as supreme leader, but an agent of God?) can either move around to visit sites or control form a central location (an analogy for the Sun moving or being located at the centre of the system). The Sun can remain still, just as the emperor can remain at home and still rule, and (another analogy) just as the heart does not need to visit the rest of the body to fulfill its function (today we would see this as supplying blood to all the tissues).

Read about analogy in science

Read examples of scientific analogies

Many examples of science analogies are listed in 'Creative comparisons: Making science familiar through language. An illustrative catalogue of figurative comparisons and analogies for science concepts'. Free Download.

The idea of the Sun being 'both choral dancer and choral leader' (a choreographer can be part of the dance group following her choreography) can be seen as a simile.

Read about similes in science

Read about examples of science similes

Copernicus marshalled the observations of famous generals on the battlefield of astronomy

An example of an extended metaphor in historical scientific writing,

"Having stated at the beginning of this Account that my teacher[i.e., Copernicus] in writing his book imitated Ptolemy, I see that there is practically nothing left for me to take up with you in reference to his method of improving the motions. For Ptolemy's tireless diligence in calculating, his almost superhuman accuracy in observing, his truly divine procedure in examining and investigating all the motions and appearances, and finally his completely consistent method of statement and proof cannot be sufficiently admired and praised by anyone to whom Urania is gracious.

In one respect, however, a burden greater than Ptolemy's confronts my teacher. For he must arrange in a certain and consistent scheme or harmony the series and order of all the motions and appearances, marshalled on the broad battlefield of astronomy by the observations of 2,000 years, as by famous generals. Ptolemy, on the other hand, had the observations of the ancients, to which he could safely entrust himself, for scarcely a quarter of this period. Time, the true god and teacher of the laws of the celestial state, discloses the errors of astronomy to us. For an imperceptible or unnoticed error at the foundation of astronomical hypotheses, principles, and tables is revealed or greatly increased by the passage of time. Therefore my teacher must not so much restore astronomy as build it anew."
Rheticus (1959) The Narratio Prima (1539, Translated by. E. Rosen), in Three Copernican Treatises (Ed. E. Rosen) Dover Publications (pp.107-196).

Read about metaphor in science

Read about examples of science metaphors

Urania was the name of one of the ancient Greek muses, and she was associated with astronomy (and astrology). Urania can be seen as a personification of astronomy.

Read about personification in science texts

Read about examples of personifying nature

Read about other examples of personification

Many examples of personification are included in 'Creative comparisons: Making science familiar through language. An illustrative catalogue of figurative comparisons and analogies for science concepts'. Free Download.