Tag: nuclear fusion

Stealing, escaping, and blowing-off in space

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Keith S. Taber

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"After a lecture on cosmology and the structure of the solar system, James [William James] was accosted by a little old lady.

'Your theory that the sun is the centre of the solar system, and the earth is a ball which rotates around it has a very convincing ring to it, Mr. James, but it's wrong. I've got a better theory,' said the little old lady.

'And what is that, madam?' inquired James politely.

'That we live on a crust of earth which is on the back of a giant turtle.'

Not wishing to demolish this absurd little theory by bringing to bear the masses of scientific evidence he had at his command, James decided to gently dissuade his opponent by making her see some of the inadequacies of her position.

'If your theory is correct, madam,' he asked, 'what does this turtle stand on?'

'You're a very clever man, Mr. James, and that's a very good question,' replied the little old lady, 'but I have an answer to it. And it's this: The first turtle stands on the back of a second, far larger, turtle, who stands directly under him.'

'But what does this second turtle stand on?' persisted James patiently.

To this, the little old lady crowed triumphantly,

'It's no use, Mr. James – it's turtles all the way down.'

Ross, 1967, iv

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It's metaphors all the way down

A well-known paper in the journal 'Cognitive Science' is entitled 'The metaphorical structure of the human conceptual system' (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). What the authors meant by this was that metaphor, or perhaps better analogy, was at the basis of much of our thinking, and so our language.

This links to the so-called 'constructivist' perspective on development and learning, and is of great significance in both the historical development of science and in science teaching and learning. Consider some of the concepts met in a science course (electron, evolution, magnetic flux, hysteresis, oxidation state, isomerism…the list is enormous) in comparison to the kind of teaching about the world that parents engage in with young children:

• That is a dog
• That is a tree
• That is round
• This is hot
• This is aunty
• etc.

Pointing out the names of objects is not a perfect technique – just as scientific theories are always underdetermined by the available data (it is always possible to devise another scheme that fits the data, even if such a scheme may have to be forced and convoluted), so the 'this' that is being pointed out as a tree could refer to the corpse of trees, or the nearest branch, or a leaf, or this particular species of plant, or even be the proper name of this tree, etc. ¹

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But, still, the 'this' in such a case is usually more salient than the 'this' when we teach:

• This is an electron
• This is reduction
• This is periodicity
• This is electronegativity
• This is a food web
• This is a ᴨ-bond
• This is a neurotransmitter
• etc.

Most often in science teaching we are not holding up a physical object or passing it around, but offering a 'this' which is at best a model (e.g., of a generalised plant cell or a human torso) or a complex linguistic structure (a definition in terms of other abstract concepts) or an abstract representation ('this', pointing to a slope of an a graph, is acceleration; 'this', pointing to an image with an arrangement of a few letters and lines, is a transition state…).

So, how do we bridge between the likes of dogs and trees on one hand and electrons and the strong nuclear force on the other (so to speak!)? The answer is we build using analogy and we talk about those constructions using a great deal of metaphor.² That is, we compare directly, or indirectly, with what we can experience. This refers to relationships as well as objects. We can experience being on top of, beneath, inside, outside, next to, in front of, behind, near to, a long way from (a building, say – although hopefully not beneath in that case), and we assign metaphorical relationships in a similar way to refer to abstract scenarios. (A chloroplast may be found in a cell, but is sodium found in (or on) the periodic table? Yes, metaphorically. And potassium is found beneath it!)

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In science, we initially form formal concepts based on direct experience of the world (including experience mediated by our interventions, i.e., experiments), and then we build more abstract concepts from those foundational concepts, and then we build even more abstract concepts by combining the abstract ones. In the early stages we refine 'common sense' or 'life-world' categories into formal concepts so we can more 'tightly' (and operationally, through standard procedures) define what count as referents for scientific terms (Taber, 2013). So, the everyday phenomenon of burning might be reconceptualised as combustion: a class of chemical reactions with oxygen.

This is not just substituting a technical term, but also a more rigid and theoretical (abstract) conceptualisation. So, in the 'life-world' we might admit the effects of too much sunshine or contact with a strong acid within the class of 'burning' by analogy with the effect of fire (it hurts and damages the skin); but the scientific categorisation is less concerned with direct perception, and more with explanation and mechanism. So, iron burning in chlorine (in the absence of any oxygen) is considered combustion, but an acid 'burn' is not.

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This is what science has done over centuries, and is also what happens in science education. So, one important tool for the teacher is concept analysis, where we check which prerequisite concepts need to be part of a student's prior learning before we introduce some new concept that is built upon then (e.g., do not try to teach mass spectroscopy before teaching about atomic structure, and do not teach about atomic structure before introducing the notion of elements; do not try to teach about the photoelectric effect to someone who does not know a little about the structure of metals and the nature of electromagnetic radiation.)

This building up of abstract concepts, one on another, is reflected in the density of metaphor we find in our language. (That is a metaphorical 'building', metaphorically placed one upon another, with a metaphorical 'density' which is metaphorically 'inside' the language and which metaphorically 'reflects' the (metaphorical) building process! You can 'see' (a metaphor for understand) just how extensive (oops, another metaphorical reference to physical space) this is. Hopefully, the (metaphorical) 'point' is (metaphorically) 'made', and so I am going to stop now, before this gets silly. ³

A case study of using language in science communication: the death of stars

Rather, I am going to discuss some examples of the language used in a single science programme, a BBC radio programme/podcast in the long-running series 'In Our Time' that took as its theme 'The Death of Stars'. The programme was hosted by Melvyn Bragg, and The Lord Bragg's guests were Professors Carolin Crawford (University of Cambridge), the Astronomer Royal Martin Rees (University of Cambridge) and Mark Sullivan (University of Southampton). This was an really good listen (recommended to anyone with an interest in astronomy), so I have certainly not picked it out to be critical, but rather to analyse the nature of some of the language used from the perspective of how that language communicates technical ideas.

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A science teacher may be familiar with stars being born, living, and dying – but how might a young learner, new to astronomical ideas, make sense of what was meant?

The passing of stars: birth, death, and afterlife in the universe

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The lives and deaths of stars

Now there is already a point of interest in the episode title. Are stars really the kind of entities that can die? Does this mean they are living beings prior to death?

There are a good many references in the talk of these three astronomers in the episode that suggests that, in astronomy at least, stars do indeed live and die. That is, this does not seem to be consciously used as a metaphor – even if the terminology may have initially been introduced that way a long time ago. The programme offered so much material on this theme, that I have separated it out for a post of its own:

"So, in the language of astronomy, stars are born, start young, live; sometimes living alone but sometimes not, sometimes have complicated lives; have lifetimes, reach the end of their lives, and die, so, becoming dead, eventually long dead; and indeed there are generations of stars with life-cycles."

The passing of stars: birth, death, and afterlife in the universe

In this post I am going to consider some of the other language used.

Making the unfamiliar familiar

Language is used in science communication to the public, as it is in teaching, to introduce abstract technical ideas in ways that a listener new to the subject can make reasonable sense of. The constructivist perspective on learning tells us that meaning is not automatically communicated from speaker (or author or teacher) to listener (or reader or student). Rather, a text (spoken or written, or even in some other form – a diagram, a graph, a dance!) has to be interpreted, and this relies on the interpretive resources available to the learner. ⁴ The learner has to relate the communication to something familiar, and the speaker can help by using ways to make the new idea seem like something already familiar.

Read about constructivism in education

This is why it it is so common in communicating science to simplify, to use analogies and similes, to gesture, to use anthropomorphism and other narrative devices. There was a good deal of this in the programme, and I expect I have missed some examples. I have divided my examples into

• simplifications: where some details are omitted so not to overburden the listener;
• anthropomorphism: where narratives are offered such that non human entities are treated as if sentient actors, with goals, that behave deliberately;
• analogies where an explicit comparison is made to map a familiar concept onto the target concept being introduced; ⁵
• similes and metaphors: that present the technical material as being similar to something familiar and everyday.

Simplification

Simplification means ignoring some of the details, and offering a gloss on things. The details may be important, but in order to get across some key idea it is introduced as a simplification. Progress in understanding would involve subsequently filling in some details to develop a more nuanced understanding later.

In teaching there are dangers in simplification, as if the simplified idea is readily latched onto (e.g., there are two types of chemical bonds: ionic and covalent) it may be difficult later to shift learners on in their thinking. This may mean that there is a subtle balance to be judged between

giving learners enough time to become comfortable with the novel idea as introduced in a simplified form,

and

seeking to develop it out into a more sophisticated account before it become dogma.

In a one-shot input, such as a public lecture or appearance in the media, the best a scientist may be able to do is to present an account which is simple enough to understand, but which offers a sense of the science.

Simplification: all elements/atoms are formed in stars

When introducing the 'In Our Time' episode, Lord Bragg suggested that

"…every element in our bodies, every planet, was made in one of those stars, either as they burned, or as they exploded".

Clearly Melvyn cannot be an expert on the very wide range of topics featured on 'In our time' but relies on briefing notes provided by his guests. Later, in the programme he asks Professor Rees (what would clearly be considered a leading question in a research context!) "Is the sun recycled from previous dead stars?"

"Yes it is because we believe that all pristine material in the universe was mainly just hydrogen and helium, and all the atoms we are made of were not there soon after the big bang. They were all made in stars which lived and died before our solar system formed. And this leads to the problem of trying to understand more massive stars which have more complicated lives and give rise to supernovae…

The cloud from which our solar system formed was already contaminated by the debris, from earlier generations of massive stars which had lived and died more than say five billion years ago so we're literally the ashes of those long dead stars or if you are less romantic we're the nuclear waste from the fuel that kept those old stars shining."

Prof. Martin Rees

There is a potential for confusion here.

"…all the atoms we are made of were not there soon after the big bang. They were all made in stars which lived and died before our solar system formed…"

seems to be meant to convey something like

not all the atoms we are made of were there soon after the big bang. [Some were, but the rest/others] were all made in stars which lived and died before our solar system formed…

A different interpretation (i.e., that all atoms/elements are formed in stars) might well be taken, given Lord Bragg's introductory comments.

Professor Rees referred to how "…the idea that the elements, the atoms we are made of, were all synthesised in stars…" first entered scientific discourse in 1946, due to Fred Hoyle, and to

"this remarkable discovery that we are literally made of the ashes of long dead stars"

Prof. Martin Rees

Before the first star formation, the only elements present in the universe were hydrogen and helium (and some lithium) and the others have been produced in subsequent high energy nuclear processes. Nuclear fusion releases energy when heavier nuclei are formed from fusing together lighter ones, up to iron (element 56).

Forming even heavier elements requires an input of energy from another source. It was once considered that exploding stars, supernovae, gave rise to the conditions for this, but recently other mechanisms have been considered: and Prof. Sullivan described one of these:"we think these combining neutron stars are the main sites where heavy elements like strontium or plutonium, perhaps even gold or silver, these kinds of elements are made in the universe in these neutron stars combining with each other".

A human body includes many different elements, though most of these in relatively small amounts. Well represented are oxygen, carbon, calcium, and nitrogen. These elements exist because of the processes that occur in stars. However, hydrogen is also found in 'organic' substances such as the carbohydrates, proteins, and fats found in the human body. Typically the molecules of these substances contain more hydrogen atoms than atoms of carbon or any other element.

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substance	formula
glucose (sugar)	C6H12O6
leucine (amino aid)	C6H13NO2
leukotriene B4 (inflammatory mediator)	C20H32O4
thymine (nucleobase)	C5H6N2O2
adreneline (hormone)	C9H13NO3
insulin (hormone)	C257H383N65O77S6
cholesterol (lipid)	C27H46O
cobalamin (vitamin B12)	C63H88CoN14O14P

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The body is also said to be about 60% water, and water has a triatomic molecule: two hydrogen atoms to one of oxygen (H₂O). That is, surely MOST of "the atoms we are made of" are hydrogen, which were present in the universe before any stars were 'born'.

So, it seems here we have a simplification ("every element in our bodies…was made in one of those stars, either as they burned, or as they exploded"; "atoms we are made of … were all made in stars") which is contradicted later in the programme. (In teaching, it is likely the teacher would feel the need to draw the learner's attention to how the more detailed information was actually developing an earlier simplification, and not leave a learner to work this out for themselves.)

Simplification: mass is changed into energy

Explaining nuclear fusion, Prof. Crawford suggested that

"Nuclear fusion is when you combine nuclei of elements to form heavier elements, and when you do this there is a loss of mass, which is converted to energy which provides the thermal pressure and that is what counteracts the gravity and stalls the gravitational collapse."

Prof. Carolin Crawford

This seems to reflect a common alternative conception ('misconception') that, in nuclear processes, mass is converted to energy. This is often linked to Albert Einstein's famous equation E = mc².

Actually, as discussed before here, this is contrary to the scientific account. The equation presents an equivalence between mass and energy, but does not suggest they can be inter-converted. In nuclear fusion, the masses of the new nuclei are very slightly less than the masses of the nuclei which react to form them (the difference is known as the mass defect), but this is because this omits some details of the full description of the process. If the complete process is considered then there is no loss of mass, just a reconfiguration of where the mass can be located.

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This is a bit like cooking some rice, and finding that when the rice is cooked the contents of the saucepan had slightly less weight than when we started – as some of the water we began with has evaporated and is no longer registering on our balance. In a similar way, if we consider everything that is produced in the nuclear process, then the mass overall is conserved.

As E = mc² can be understood to tell us that mass follows the energy (or vice versa) we should expect mass changes (albeit very, very small ones) whenever work is done: when we climb the stairs, or make a cup of tea, or run down a mobile 'phone 'battery' (usually a cell?) – but mass is always conserved when we consider everything involved in any process (such as how the 'phone very, very slightly warms -and so very marginally increases the mass of – the environment).

Read 'How much damage can eight neutrons do?'

Despite the scientific principles of conservation of energy and conservation of mass always applying when we make sure we consider everything involved in a process, I have mentioned on this site another example of an astrophysicist suggesting mass can be converted into energy: "an electron and the positron, and you put them together, they would annihilate…they would annihilate into energy" (on a different episode of 'In Our Time': come on Melvyn…we always conserve mass).

Read 'The missing mass of the electron'

Perhaps this is an alternative conception shared by some professional scientists, but I wonder if it sometimes seems preferably to tell the "mass into energy" narrative because it is simpler than having to explain the full details of a process – which is inevitably a more complex story and so will be more difficult for a novice to take in. After all, the "mass into energy" story is likely to seem to fit with a listener's interpretive resources, as E=mc² is such a famous equation that it can be assumed that it will be familiar to most listeners, even if only a minority will have a deep appreciation of how the equivalence works.

Anthropomorphic narratives

In science learning, anthropomorphism is (to borrow a much used metaphor) a double edged sword that can cut both ways. Teachers often find that using narratives that present inanimate entities which are foci of science lessons as if they are sentient beings with social lives and motivations engages learners and triggers mental images that a student can readily remember. So, students may recall learning about what happens at a junction in a circuit in terms of a story about an electron that had to make a decision about which way to go – perhaps she took one branch while her friend tried another? They recall that covalent bonds are the 'sharing' of electrons between atoms, and indeed that atoms want, perhaps even need, to fill their electron shells, and if they manage this they will be happy.

Read about anthropomorphism

The danger here is that for many students such narratives are not simply useful ways to get them thinking about the science concepts (weak anthropomorphism) but seem quite sufficient as the basis of explanations (strong anthropomorphism) – and so it may become difficult to shift them towards more canonical accounts. They will then write in tests that chemical reactions occur because the atoms want full shells, or that only one electron can be removed from a sodium atom because it then has a full shell. (That is, a force applied to an electron in an electric field is seen as irrelevant compared with the atom's desires. These are genuine examples reflecting what students have said.)

However, there is no doubt that framing scientific accounts within narratives which have elements of human experience as social agent does seem to help make these ideas engaging and accessible. Some such anthropomorphism is explicit, such as when gas molecules (are said to) like to move further apart, and some is more subtle by applying terms which would normally be used in relation to human experiences (not being bothered; chomping; escaping…).

What gravity did next

Consider this statement:

"All stars have the problem of supporting themselves against gravitational collapse, whether that is a star like our sun which is burning hydrogen into helium, and thus providing lots of thermal pressure to stop collapse, or whether it is a white dwarf star, but it does not have any hydrogen to burn, because it is an old dead star, fading away, so it has another method to stop itself collapsing and that is called degeneracy pressure. So, although a white dwarf is very dense, gravity is still trying to pull that white dwarf to be even denser and even denser."

Prof. Mark Sullivan

There is an explicit anthropomorphism here: from the scientific perspective gravity is not trying to pull the white dwarf to be even denser. Gravity does not try to do anything. Gravity is not a conscious agent with goals that it 'tries' to achieve.

However, there is also a more subtle narrative thread at work – that a star has the problem of supporting itself, and it seems that when its first approach to solving this problem fails, it has a fallback method "to stop itself collapsing". But the star is just a complex system where various forces act and so processes occur. A star is not the kind of entity that can have a problem or enact strategies to achieve goals. Yet, this kind of language seems to naturally communicate abstract ideas though embedding them within an accessible narrative.

Star as moral agents

In the same way, a star is not the type of entity which can carry out immoral acts, but

"A star like our sun will never grow in mass, because it lives by itself in space. But most stars in the universe don't live by themselves, they live in what are called binary systems where you have two stars orbiting each other, rather than just the single star that we have as the sun. They are probably born with different masses, and so they evolve at different speeds and one will become a white dwarf. Now the physics is a bit complicated, but what can happen, is that that white dwarf can steal material from its companion star."

Prof. Mark Sullivan

The meaning here seems very clear, but again there are elements of using an anthropomorphic narrative. For one star to steal material from another star, that material would have to first belong to that other star, and its binary 'partner' would have to deliberately misappropriate that material knowing it belongs to its 'neighbour' (indeed, "companion").

Such a narrative breaks down on analysis. If we were to accept that the matter initially belongs to the first star (leaving aside for the moment what kind of entities can be considered to own property) then given that the material in a star got to be there through mutual gravitational attraction, the only obvious basis for ownership is that that matter has become gravitationally bound as part of that star.

If we have no other justification than that (as in the common aphorism, possession is nine points of the law), then when the material is transferred to another star because its gravitational field gives rise to a net force causing the matter to become gravitationally bound to a different star, then we should simply consider ownership to have changed. There is no theft in a context where ownership simply depends on pulling with the greater force. Despite this, we readily accept an analogy from our more familiar human social context and understand that (in a metaphorical sense) one star has stolen from another!

Actually, theft can only be carried out by moral agents – those who have capacity to intend to deprive others of their property

"A person [sic] is guilty of theft if he dishonestly appropriates property belonging to another with the intention of permanently depriving the other of it; and "thief" and "steal" shall be construed accordingly"

U.K. Theft Act 1968

Generally, these days (though this was not always so), even non-human animals are seldom considered capable of being responsible for such crimes. Admittedly, the news agency Reuters reported that as recently as 2008 "A Macedonian court convicted a bear of theft and damage for stealing honey from a beekeeper", but this seems to have been less a judgement on the ability of the bear (convicted it its absence) to engage in ethical deliberation, and more a pragmatic move that allowed the bee-keeper to be awarded criminal damages for his losses.

But, according to astronomers, stars are not only involved in the petty larceny of illicitly acquiring gas, but observations of exoplanets suggests some stars may even commit more daring, large-scale, heists,

"fairly small rocky planets two or three times the mass of the earth, in quite tight orbits around their star and you can speculate that they were once giant planets like Jupiter that have had the outer gassy layers blasted off and you are left with the rocky core, or maybe those planets were stolen from another star that got too close"

Prof. Carolin Crawford

A ménage à trois?

And there were other suggestions of anthropomorphism. It is not only stars that "don't live by themselves" in this universe,

"Nickel-56 [⁵⁶Ni] is what's called an iron peak element, so it lives with iron and cobalt on the periodic table…"

Prof. Mark Sullivan

And, it is not only gravity which seems to have preferences:

"And like Mark has described with electrons not wanting to be squeezed, you have neutron degeneracy pressure. Neutrons don't like to be compressed, at some point they resist it."

Prof. Carolin Crawford

Neither electrons nor neutrons actually have any preferences: but this is an anthropomorphic metaphor that efficiently communicates a sense of the natural phenomena. 'Resist' originally had an active sense as in taking a stand, but today would not necessarily be understood that way. Wanting and liking (or not wanting and not liking), however, strictly only refer to entities that can have desires and preferences.

Navigating photons

Professor Rees explained why some imploding stars are not seen as very bright stars that fade over years, but rather observed through extremely intense bursts of high energy radiation that fade quickly,

"The energy in the form of ordinary photons, ordinary light, that's arisen in the centre of a supernova, diffuses out and takes weeks to escape, okay, but if the star is spinning, then it will be an oblate spheroid, it will have a minor axis along the spin axis, and so the easy way out is for the radiation not to diffuse through but to find the shortest escape route, which is along the spin axis, and I mention this because gamma ray bursts are … when a supernova occurs but because the original star was sort of flattened there is an easy escape route and all the energy escapes in jets along the spin axis and so instead of it diffusing out over a period of weeks, as it does in a supernova, it comes out in a few seconds."

Prof. Martin Rees

Again, the language used is suggestive. Radiation is not just emitted by the star, but 'escapes' (surely a metaphor?). The phrasing "an easy way out" implies something not being difficult. Inanimate entities like photons do not actually (literally) find anything difficult or easy. Moreover, the radiation might "find the shortest escape route": language that does not reflect a playing out of physical forces but an active search – only a being able to seek can find. Yet, again, the language supports an engaging narrative, 'softening' the rather technical story by subtly reflecting a human quest.

Professor Rees also referred to how,

"when those big stars face a crisis they blow off their outer layers"

Prof. Martin Rees

again using phrasing which seems to present the stars as deliberate actors – they actively "blow off" material when they "face a crisis". A crisis is (or at least was originally) a point where a decision needs to be made. A star does not reach the critical point where it reluctantly decides it needs to shed some material – but rather is subject to changing net forces as the rate of heat generation from nuclear processes starts to decrease.

A sense of anthropomorphic narrative also attaches to Professor Crawford's explanation of how more massive stars process material faster,

"…more massive stars … actually have shorter lifetimes …they have to chomp through their fuel supply so furiously that they exhaust it more rapidly

Prof. Carolin Crawford

'Chomping', a term for vigorous eating (biting, chewing, munching), is here a metaphor, as a star does not eat – as pointed out in the companion piece, nutrition is a characteristics feature of living things, but does not map across to stars even if they are described as being born, living, dying and so forth. To be furious is a human emotional response: stars may process their remaining hydrogen quickly, but there is no fury involved. Again, though, the narrative, perhaps inviting associated mental imagery, communicates a sense of the science.

Laid-back gas

Another example of anthropomorphism was

"…if you have a gas cloud that's been sitting out in space for billions of years and has not bothered to contract because it's been too hot or it's too sparse…"

Prof. Carolin Crawford

This is an interesting example, as Prof. Crawford explicitly explains here that the gas cloud has not contracted because of the low density of material (so weak gravitational forces acting on the particles) and/or the high temperature (so the gas comprises of energetic, so fast moving, particles), so the suggestion that the material cannot be bothered (implication: that the 'cloud' operates as a single entity, and is sentient if perhaps a little lazy) does not stand in place of a scientific explanation, but rather simply seems to be intended to 'soften' (so to speak) the technical nature of the language used.

Analogy

An analogy goes beyond a simile or metaphor because there is some kind of structural mapping to make it explicit in what way or ways the analogue is considered to be like the target concept. ⁵ (Such as when explaining mass defect in relation to the material lost from the saucepan when cooking rice!)

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Read about science analogies

So, Prof. Rees suggests that scientists can test their theories about star 'life cycles' by observation, even though an individual star only moves through the process over billions of years, and uses an analogy to a more familiar everyday context:

"We can test our theories, not only because we understand the physics, but because we can look at lots of stars. It is rather like if you had never seen a tree before, and you wandered around in a forest for a day, you can infer the life cycles of trees, you'd see saplings and big trees, etcetera. And so even though our lifetime is minuscule compared to the lifetime of a stable star, we can infer the population and life cycles of stars observationally and the theory does corroborate that fairly well."

Prof. Martin Rees

This would seem to make the basis of a good teaching analogy that could be discussed with students and would likely link well with their own experiences.

The other explicit analogy introduced by Prof. Rees is one well-known to physics teachers (sometimes in an ice-skater variant),

"If a contracting cloud has even a tiny little bit of spin, if it is rotating a bit, then as it contracts, then just like the ballerina who pulls in her arms and spins faster, then the contracting cloud will start to spin faster…"

Prof. Martin Rees

Stellar similes

I take the difference between a simile and a metaphor as the presence of an explicit marker (such as '…as…',…like…') to tell the listener/reader that a comparison is being made – so 'the genome is the blueprint for the body' would be a metaphor, where 'the genome is like a blueprint for the body' would be a simile.

As if a black hole cuts itself off

So, when Professor Rees describes how a massive black hole forms, he uses simile (i.e., "…as if were…"),

"So, if a neutron star gets above that mass, then it will compress even further, and will become a black hole – it will go on contracting until it, as it were, cuts itself off from the rest of the universe, leaving a gravitational imprint frozen in the space that's left. It becomes a black hole that things can fall into but not come out."

Prof. Martin Rees

There is an element of anthropomorphic narrative (see above) again here, if we consider the choice of active, rather than passive, phrasing

• …as it were, cuts itself off from the rest of the universe, compared with
• …as it were, becomes cut off from the rest of the universe

This is presented as something the neutron star itself does ("it will compress…become a black hole – it will go on contracting until it, as it were, cuts itself off…") rather than a process occurring in/to the matter of which it is comprised.

As if galaxies drop over the horizon

Prof. Rees uses another simile, when talking of how the expansion of space means that in time most galaxies will disappear from view,

"All the more distant universe which astronomers like Mark [Sullivan] study, galaxies far away, they will all have expanded their distance from us and in effect disappeared over a sort of horizon and so we just wouldn't see them at all. They'd be too faint, rather like …an inside-out black hole as it were, but in this case they moved so far away that we can't see them any more …"

Prof. Martin Rees

The term horizon, originally referring to the extent of what is in sight as we look across the curved Earth, has become widely used in astronomical contexts where objects cease to be in sight (i.e., the event horizon of a black hole beyond which any light being emitted by an object will not be able to leave {'escape!'} the black hole because of the intense gravitation field), but here Prof. Rees clearly marks out for listeners ("…in effect…a sort of…") that he is making a comparison with the familiar notion of a horizon that we experience here on Earth.

There is another simile here, the reference to the expansion of space leading to an effect "rather like…an inside-out black hole as it were" – but perhaps that comparison would be less useful to a listener new to the topic as it uses a scientific idea rather than an everyday phenomenon as the analogue.

Through a glass onion darkly?

Another simile used by Professor Rees was a references to a "sort of onion skin structure". Now 'onion skin' sometimes refers to the hard, dry, outer material (the 'tunic') usually discarded when preparing the onion for a dish. To a science teacher, however, this is more likely to mean the thin layer of epithelial tissue that can be peeled from the scales inside the bulb. These scales, which are potentially the bases of leaves that can grow if the bulb is planted, are layered in the bulb.

The skin is useful in science lessons as it is a single layer of cells, that is suitable for students to dissect from the onion, and mount for microscopic examination – allowing them to observe the individual cells. There is something at least superficially analogous to this in stars. Observations of the Sun show that convection processes gives rise to structures referred to as convection 'cells'.

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Yet, when Professor Rees' simile is heard in context, it seems that this is not the focus of the comparison:

"…all the nuclear processes which would occur at different stages in the heavy stars…which have this sort of onion skin structure with the hotter inner layers"

Prof. Martin Rees

Very large stars that have processed much of their hydrogen into helium can be considered to have a layered structure where under different conditions a whole sequence of processes are occurring leading to the formation of successively heavier and heavier elements, and ultimately to a build-up of iron near the centre.

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When I heard the reference to the onion, this immediately suggested the layered nature of the onion bulb being like the structure of a star that was carrying out the sequence of processes where the products of one fusion reaction become the raw material for the next. Presumably, my familiarity with the layered model of a star led me to automatically make an association with onions which disregarded the reference to the skin. That is, I had existing 'interpretive resources' to understand why the onion reference was relevant, even though the explicit mention of the skin might make the comparison obscure to someone new to the science.

Metaphors – all the way back up?

Some metaphors can easily be spotted (if someone suggests mitochondria are the power stations of the cell, or a lion is King of the jungle), but if our conceptual systems, and our language, are built by layers of metaphor upon metaphor then actually most metaphors are dead metaphors.

That is, an original metaphor is a creative attempt to make a comparison with something familiar, but once the metaphor is widely taken up, and in time becomes common usage and so a part of standard language, it ceases to act as a metaphor and becomes a literal meaning.

This presumably is what has happened with the adoption of the idea that stars are born, live out their lives, and then die: originally it was a poetic use of language, but now among astronomers it reflects an expanded standard use of terms that were once more restricted (born, live, lifetime, die etc.).

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If you see a standard candle…

When Professor Sullivan refers to a "standard candle", this is now a widely used astronomical notion (in relation to how we estimate distances to distant stars and galaxies that are much too far away to triangulate from parallax as the earth changes its position in the solar system) – but at one time this was used as a figure of speech.

Some figures of speech are created in the moment, but never widely copied and adopted. The astronomical community adopted the 'standard candle' such that it is now an accepted term, even though most young people meeting astronomical ideas for the first time probably have very little direct experience of candles. What might once have seemed a blatantly obvious allusion may now need explaining to the novice.

When Sir Arthur Eddington (famous for collecting observations during an eclipse consistent with predictions from relativity theory about the gravitational 'bending' of starlight) gave a public lecture in 1932, he seems to have assumed that his audience would understand the analogy between an astronomer's 'standard candles' (Cepheid variables) and standard candles they might themselves use!

"If you see a standard candle anywhere and note how bright it appears to you, you can calculate how far off it is; in the same way an astronomer observes his [or her] 'standard candle' in the midst of a nebula, notes its apparent brightness or magnitude, and deduces the distance of the nebula"

Eddington, 1933/1987, pp.7-8

This ongoing development in language means that it may not always be entirely clear which terms are still engaged with as if metaphors and which have now become understood as literal. That is, in considering whether some phrase is a metaphor we can ask two questions:

• did the author/speaker intend this as a comparison, or do they consider the term has direct literal meaning?
• does the reader/listener understand the term to have a literal meaning, or is it experienced as some novel kind of comparison with another context which has to be related back to the focus?

In the latter case we might also think it is important to distinguish between cases where the audience member can decode the intention of the comparison 'automatically' as part of normal language processing – and cases where they would have to consciously deliberate on the meaning. (In the latter case, the interpretation is likely to disrupt the flow of reading, and when listening could perhaps even require the listener to disengage from the communication such that subsequent speech is missed.)

(Metaphorical?) hosts

So, when Prof. Crawford suggests that

"The supernovae, particularly, are of fundamental importance for the host galaxy…"

Prof. Carolin Crawford

her use of the term 'host' is surely metaphorical (at least for a listener – this term is widely used in the literature of academic astronomy ⁶). A host offers hospitality for a guest. That does not seem to obviously reflect the relationship between a supernova and the galaxy it is found in and is part of. It is not a guest: rather, in Prof. Sullivan's terms we might suggest that star has 'lived its entire life' in that galaxy – it is its galactic 'home'. Despite this comparison not standing up to much formal analysis, I suspect the metaphor can be automatically processed by anyone with strong familiarity with the concept of a host. Precise alignment may not be a strong criterion for effective metaphors.

Another meaning of host refers to a sacrificial victim (as in the host in the Christian Eucharist) which seems unlikely to be the derivation here, but perhaps fits rather well with Prof. Crawford's point. A supernova too close to earth could potentially destroy the biosphere – an unlikely but not impossible event.

(Metaphorical?) bubbles

Professor Crawford described some of the changes during a supernova,

"You have got your iron core, it collapses down under gravity in less than a second, that kind of leaves the outer layers of the star a little behind, they crash down, bounce on the surface of the core, and then there's a shockwave, that propels all this stellar debris, out into space. So, this is part of the supernova explosion we have been talking about, and it carves out a bubble within the interstellar medium."

Prof. Carolin Crawford

There are a number of places here where everyday terms are applied in an unfamiliar context such as 'core', 'bouncing', 'layers' and 'debris'. But the idea of carving a bubble certainly seems metaphorical, if only because a familiar bubble would have a physical surface, where surely, here, there is no strict interface between discrete regions of gases. But, again, the term offers an accessible image to communicate the process. (And anyone looking at the NASA image above of convection cells in the Sun might well feel that these can be perceived as if bubbles.)

(Metaphorical?) pepper

Similarly, the idea of heavy elements from exploding suns being added to the original hydrogen and helium in the interstellar medium as like adding pepper also offers a strong image,

"…this is the idea of enrichment, you start off with much more primordial hydrogen and helium gas that gets steadily peppered with all these heavy elements…"

Prof. Carolin Crawford

Perhaps 'peppered' is now a dead metaphor, as it is widely used in various contexts unrelated to flavouring food.

(Metaphorical?) imprints

When Professor Rees referred to a neutron star that has become a black hole leaving a "gravitational imprint frozen in the space that's left" this makes good sense as the black hole will not be visible, but its gravitational field will have effects well beyond its event horizon. Yet, one cannot actually make an imprint in space, one needs a suitable material substrate (snow, plater, mud…) to imprint into; and nor has anything been 'frozen' in a literal sense. Indeed, the gravitational field will change as the black hole acquires more material through gravitational capture (and in the very long term loses mass though evaporates Hawking radiation – which is said to cause the black hole to 'evaporate'). So, this is a kind of double metaphor.

(Metaphorical?) blasts and blows

I report above both the idea that rocky planet close to large stars might have derived from 'giant' planets "that have had the outer gassy layers blasted off" and how "big stars…blow off their outer layers". Can stars really blow, or is this based on a metaphor. Blasts usually imply explosions, sudden events, so perhaps these are metaphorical blasts? And it is not just larger stars that engage in blowing off,

"[The sun] will blow off its outer layers and become a red giant, expanding so it will engulf the inner planets, but then the core will settle down to what's called a white dwarf, this is a dead, dense star, about a million times denser than normal stuff…."

Prof. Martin Rees

Metaphors galore!

Perhaps those last examples are not especially convincing – but this reflects a point I made earlier. Language changes over time: it is (metaphorically-speaking) fluid. If language started from giving names to things we can directly point at, then anything we cannot directly point at needs to be labelled in terms of existing words. Most of the terms we use were metaphors at some point, but became literal as the language norms changed.

But society is not a completely homogeneous language community. The requirements of professional discourse in astronomy (or any other specialised field of human activity) drive language modifications in particular regards ahead of general language use. It is not just people in Britain and the United States who are divided by a common language – we all are to some extent. What has become literal meaning for for one person (perhaps a science teacher) may well only be a metaphor to another (a student, say).

After all, when I look up what it is to blow off, I find that the most common contemporary meaning relates to a failure to meet a social obligation or arrangement – I am pretty sure (from the context) that that is not what Professor Rees was suggesting ("…when those big stars face a crisis they [let down] their outer layers".) Once we start looking at texts closely, they seem to be 'loaded' with figures of speech. A planet is not materially constrained in space, yet we understand why an orbit might be considered 'tight'.

In the proceeding quote, the core of a star seems to need no explanation although it presumably derives by analogy with the core of an apple or similar fruit, which itself seems to derive metaphorically form an original meaning of the heart. Again, what is meant by engulf is clear enough although originally it referred to the context of water and the meaning has been metaphorically (or analogously) extended.

The terms red giant and white dwarf clearly derive from metaphor. (Sure, a red giant is gigantic, but then, on any normal scale of human experience, so is a white dwarf.) These terms might mystify someone meeting them for the first time so not already aware they are used to refer to classes of star. This might suggest the value of a completely objective language for discussing science where all terms are tightly (hm, too metaphorical…closely? rigidly? well-) defined, but that would be a project reminiscent of the logical positivist programme in early twentieth century that ultimately proved non-viable. We can only define words with more words, and there are limits to the precision possible with a usable, 'living', language.

Take the "discovery that we are literally made of the ashes of long dead stars". Perhaps, but the term ashes normally refers to the remains of burnt organic material, especially wood, so perhaps we are not literally, but only metaphorically made of the ashes of long dead stars. Just as when when Professor Sullivan noted,

"the white dwarf is made of carbon, it's made of oxygen, and the temperature and the pressure in the centre of that white dwarf star can become so extreme, that carbon detonation can occur in the centre of the white dwarf, and that is a runaway thermonuclear reaction – that carbon burns in astronomer speak into more massive elements…"

Prof. Mark Sullivan

Are we stardust, ashes or just waste?

Burning is usually seen in scientific terms as another word for combustion. So, the nuclear fusion, 'burning' "in astronomer speak" of its nuclear 'fuel' in a star represents an extension of the original meaning by analogy with combustion. ⁹ Material that is deliberately used to maintain a fire is fuel. A furnace is an artefact deliberately built to maintain a high temperature – the nuclear furnace in a star is not an artefact but a naturally occurring system (gravity holds the material in place), but is metaphorically a furnace. A runaway is a fugitive who has absconded – so to describe a thermonuclear reaction (which is not going anywhere in spatial terms) as 'runaway' adopts what was a metaphor. (Astronomers also use the term 'runaway' to label a class of star that seem to be moving especially fast compared with the interstellar medium – a somewhat more direct borrowing of the usual meaning of 'runaway'.)

To consider us to be made from 'nuclear waste' relies on seeing the star-as-nuclear-furnace as analogous to a nuclear pile in a power station. In nuclear power stations we deliberately process fissile material to allow us to generate electrical power: and material is produced as a by-product of this process (that is, it is a direct product of the natural nuclear processes, but a by-product of our purposeful scheme to generate electricity). To consider something waste means making a value judgement.

If the purpose of a star is to shine (a teleological claim) and the fusion of hydrogen is the means to achieve that end, then the material produced in that process which is no longer suitable as 'fuel' can be considered 'waste'. If the universe does not have any purpose(s) for stars then there is no more basis for seeing this material as waste than there is for seeing stars themselves as the waste products of a process that causes diffuse matter to come together into local clumps. That is, this is an anthropocentric perspective that values stars as of more value than either the primordial matter from which they formed, or the 'dead' matter they will evolve into when they no longer shine 'for us'. Nature may not have such favourites! If it has a purpose, then stars seem to only be intermediate steps towards its ultimate end.

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Sources cited:

• Eddington, A. (1933/1987). The Expanding Universe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). The metaphorical structure of the human conceptual system. Cognitive Science, 4(2), 195-208.
• Ross, J. R. (1967). Constraints on variables in syntax. (Ph.D.), Massachusetts Institute of Technology. https://babel.ucsc.edu/~hank/ross67.pdf
• Taber, K. S. (2013). Revisiting the chemistry triplet: drawing upon the nature of chemical knowledge and the psychology of learning to inform chemistry education. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 14(2), 156-168. doi:10.1039/C3RP00012E (Manuscript version can be downloaded here).
• Taber, K. S. (2019). The Nature of the Chemical Concept: Constructing chemical knowledge in teaching and learning. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry.
• Ulmer, M., Grace, V., Hudson, H., & Schwartz, D. (1972). Upper Limits to the X-Ray Luminosities of Five Supernovae. The Astrophysical Journal, 173, 205.

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¹ It may seem fanciful that we give a specific individual tree a proper name but should a child inherently appreciate that we commonly name individual hamsters (say, or ships, or roads), but not individual trees? 'Major Oak' is a particular named Oak tree in Sherwood Forest, so the idea is not ridiculous. (It is very large, but apparently the name derives from it being described by an author with the army rank of major. Of course, this term for a soldier leading others derives metaphorically from a Latin word meaning bigger, so…)

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² "So how do we bridge between dogs and trees on one hand and electrons and the strong nuclear force on the other (so to speak!)? The answer is we build using analogy and we talk about those constructions using a great deal of metaphor."

• We understand what is meant by bridge here in relation to an actual bridge that physically links two places – such as locations on opposite sides of a river or railway line.
• There is no actual building up of materials, but we understand how we can 'build' in the abstract by analogy.
• These things are not actually at hand, but we make a metaphorical comparison in terms of distinguishing items held in 'opposite' hands. We understand what is meant by a great deal of something abstract by analogy with a great deal of something we can directly experience, e.g., sand, water, etcetera.

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³ A point is a hypothetical, infinitesimally small, location in space, which is not something a person could actually make. The 'point' of an argument is metaphorically like the point of a pencil or spear which is metaphorically an approximation to an actual point. Of course, we (adult members of the English language community) all know what is meant by the point of an argument – but people new to a language (such as young children) have to find this out, without someone holding up the point of an argument for them to learn to recognise.

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⁴ In part, this means linguistic resources. Each individual person has a unique vocabulary, and even though sharing most words with others, often has somewhat unique ranges of application of those words. But it also refers to personal experiences that can be drawn upon (e.g., having cared for an ill relative, having owned a pet, having undertaken part-time work in a hospital pharmacy, having been taken to work by a parent…) and the cultural referents that are commonly discussed in discourse (cultural icons like the Mona Lisa or Beethoven's fifth symphony; familiarity with some popular television show or film; appreciating that Romeo and Juliet were tragic lovers, or that Gandhi is widely considered a moral role model, and so forth.)

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The interpretive resources are whatever mental resources are available to help make sense of communication.

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⁵ I am using the term concept in an 'inclusive' sense (Taber, 2019), in that whenever a person can offer a discrimination about whether something is an example of some category, then they hold a concept (vague or detailed; simple or complex; canonical or alternative).

That is, if someone can (beyond straight guesswork) try to answer one of the questions "what is X? ", "is this an example of X?" or "can you suggests an example of X?", then they have a relevant concept – where X could be…

• a beaker
• a force
• a bacterium
• opaque
• a transition metal
• an isomer
• distillation
• neutralisation
• a representation of the ideal gas law
• and so forth

Read more about concepts

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⁶ The earliest reference to 'host galaxies' I found in a quick search of the scientific literature was from 1972 in a paper which used the term 'host galaxy' 8 times, including,

"We estimated the distances [of observed supernovae]…by four different methods:

• (1) Estimating the absolute luminosity of the host galaxy.
• (2) Estimating the absolute luminosity of the supernova.
• (3) Using the measured redshift of the host galaxy and assuming the Hubble constant H = 75 km (s Mpc)^-1 …
• (4) Identifying the host galaxy with a cluster of galaxies for which the distance from Earth had already been estimated.

Ulmer, Grace, Hudson & Schwartz, 1972, p.209

The term 'host galaxy' was not introduced or defined in the paper, suggesting that either it was already in common use as a scientific term (and so a dead metaphor within the astronomical community) in 1972 or Ulmer and colleagues assumed it was obvious enough not to need explanation.

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⁷ It should be pointed out that 'In Our Time' is not presented as succession of mini-lectures, or as a tightly scripted programme, but as a conversation between Melvyn as his guests. Of course, there is some level of preparation by those involved, but in adopting a conversational style, avoiding the sense of prepared statements, it is inevitable that a guest's language will sometimes lack the precision of a drafted and much revised account.

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⁸ A supernova may appear as a new star in the sky if it is so far away that the star was not previously detectable, or as a known star quick;y becoming very much brighter.

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⁹ One should be careful in making such equivalences, as in that although we may equate burning with combustion, burning is an everyday ('life world') phenomenon, and combustion is a scientific concept: often our scientific concepts are more precisely defined than the related everyday terms. (Which is why melting has a broader meaning in everyday life {the sugar melts in the hot tea; the stranger melted away into the mist} than it does in science.) But although we might say, as suggested earlier in the text, we have been burned by exposure to the sun's ultraviolet rays, or by contact with a caustic substance, in those contexts we are unlikely to consider our skin as 'fuel' for the process.

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