Tooltip Categories: Site glossary

The term 'learning doctor' refers to a teacher accepting that learners will not always understand teaching as intended, but using diagnostic assessment techniques to diagnose and address where teaching-learning goes wrong.

Read about the learning doctor approach

A covariate is a factor that may vary and influence the outcome of an experimental study, but is not being deliberately modified or controlled. For example, if the effectiveness of different teaching approaches are being evaluated by student scores on a post test, then student prior attainment (as measured by scores on a pre-test) can be considered a covariate.

The term double science is used in the English school curriculum context to refer to a course taken by 14-16 year old learners. Double science is a 'broad and balanced' science course (i.e., covering biology, chemistry and physics) that is designed to be taught as the equivalent of two other school timetable subjects, and which provides double certification (two grades) on final examination. That is, it counts as two subjects for purposes such as entry to further education courses.

Research into how language is used and has evolved often invovles a large set of texts (the corpus) that is analysed using computers that can count instances, calculate correlations (the degree to which one word or phrase  is used in close association with another), etcetera.

The term a priori is used to describe an assumption which does not result from observation/experiment but is considered to necessarily be so – that is, prior to experience. Science generally seeks to avoid relying on any a priori assumptions.

The problem of induction is a classic theme in the philosophy of science. Traditionally it was considered (e.g., Francis Bacon) that if one could collect enough data one would be able to infer the patterns tht occur in nature (laws, etc.) – by a process of induction. The problem of induction was how can one percieve patterns that one is not yet aware of? There seemed to be a logical 'gap' in this process. (This might be seen as akin to the so-called learning paradox.) It was often both accepted that there was a problem of induction, but assumed induction must occur.

Karl Popper suggested that science did not proceed through induction at all, but rather there were always conjectures about what might be found before data was collected and analysed – and so science proceedes deductively, but examining data to see if it matched predicted patterns (hypotheses about what would be found under certain conditions, informed by conjectured principles, etc.). This closed the logical gap, as now scientists always knew what they were looking for to support a conjecture – but at the cost of a model of science that proceeded by logically rejecting alternatives that are refuted when hypothesised patterns are not found.

Read about induction

 

This refers to the debate about what is sometimes known as 'the scientific method' which developed between Sir Karl Popper and Thomas Kuhn about how science progresses. Popper presented a model of how science should proceed based upon setting out testable (and so falsifiable)- a method of conjecture and refutation which progressively rejected more and more alternatives to the true state of affairs. Popper strongly objected to Kuhn descriptions of science as of normal science as being puzzle solving taking place within established paradigms that were only occasionally overturned by revolutions. Kuhn argued that successive paradigms were strictly incommensurable (and biased the perceptions of those working within them so that those within different paradigms could not step outside them to judge things from some neutral ground). This was seen as a relativistic view of science, as taking strictly it mean there was no objective means of seeing a paradigm-shift as a move closer to scientific truth. Popper called the suggested hold of such paradigms over scientists as the myth of the framework.

Read about scientific method

 

A category error is a kind of mistake where a statement is made about something which cannot be the case because the subject is not the type of entity which could have the property that is being assigned. For example, 'the rock was wise enough not to respond' would (if intended literally) reflect a catrgory error because only sentient beings can be wise, and rocks are not sentient.

Anthropomorphism can be considered a class of category error where non human entitties are considered to have human characteristics. (In science teaching, anthropomorphism may be intended metaphorically, but understood literally so that learners develop category errors such as thinking  atoms want full shells of elcetrons.

Read about anthropomorphism

The D.Litt. (doctor of letters) degree is a higher doctorate, similar to the D.Sc. (doctor of science) degree. Normally a D.Litt. is awarded to someone who has acted as an independent researcher over an extended period of time, and has produced work recognised as highly influential in a field of scholarship.

As a higher doctorate, it signifies a lever of accomplishment beyond that of a Ph.D. degree. Holders of higher doctorates are relatively rare, partially because of the very high level of achievement expected but also because it is awarded only to someone who is already highly regarded in their field – so, unlike a Ph.D. degree (which is expected for many academic and research posts), it is not usually a qualification expected for any area of employment.

The degree of doctor of philosophy (Ph.D., or sometimes D.Phil.) is awarded by a university or similar body to those who have demonstrated competence in research within a specified academic discipline. A doctorate is a 'higher' degree, and traditionally the third tier of higher education (i.e., Bachelor's degree, Master's degree, Doctorate).

The Ph.D. is usually awarded after the evaluation of a research thesis reporting a substantive research project, or reporting a number of small related studies. It is expected that the work submitted is of 'publishable' standard, that is suitable for publication in a respected research journal. (In some countries the candidate is expected to demonstrate the publishable standard of the work, by having some of it published before the work is assessed for the degree.)

The doctoral candidate is usually examined viva voce (orally) by a panel of examiners who have read the thesis – being questioned about the work and the field within which it is located. In some national contexts the viva is a critical part of the examination process and is conduced in private, but in some contexts the oral examination only takes place after the examiners have decided to pass the submitted thesis, and is open to anyone who wishes to attend, and acts as a public celebration of the completion of the degree.

Commonly, the Ph.D. candidate must be registered as research student for several years, and initially follows a programme of research training and is provided with thesis supervision, but is expected to demonstrate the potential to operate as an independent researcher by the end of the process.

Sometimes a university will accept, from someone who has not been registered as a student, a portfolio of previously published research papers accompanied by a commentary as a submission for examination for the degree of Ph.D. This route is seen as suitable for an experienced independent researcher who does not need research training and supervision.

Although the title of the degree includes the term 'philosophy' this is understood in a broad sense of a contribution to public knowledge and Ph.D. degrees are awarded in all academic disciplines, not just philosophy. The holder of a Ph.D. is entitled to use the title Dr (doctor).

The somewhat ambigous term preternatural has sometimes been used to describe a category intermediate between the natural and the supernatural – even though those terms would seem to admit no intermediate. In practice the term has sometimes been used as a synonym for supernatural, or sometimes to refer to something which seems miraculous but is assumed not to be supernatural but jsut of unknown cause, or to be due to supernatural events that are not the direct action of the deity.

Augmented reality, AR, is a tool that enables simulations to augment the person's perception of their actual environment (as opposed to virtual reality which provides a fully simulated perceived environment).