This chapter considers what type of educational experiences and activities are considered to best meet the needs of students who have been identified as gifted. The chapter begins by reviewing the main approaches to meeting the needs of gifted learners in the curriculum, then turns to consider the features of activities and tasks that should be planned to challenge the most able learners in science classes.
Approaches to meeting the needs of the most able
The gifted, like all learners, need a curriculum that meets their needs, and challenges them. This may be as a special group provision, or as part of the differentiation of provision for a wider group of learners. Provision for the gifted could also include accelerated learning and enrichment. Within mixed-ability groups it may also be possible to consider the differentiation of roles among learners. It has also been suggested that gifted learners may benefit from being provided with mentors.
Curriculum acceleration
Accelerated learning means passing through the normal curriculum, but at a faster rate,
"Accelerated learning is being flexible and giving students school work that is in keeping with their abilities, without regard to age or grade. These students are allowed to progress throughout the curriculum at a more advanced rate than normal by grade advancement…"
This type of acceleration is relatively rare in the UK, although it is not unusual for schools to enter top-set pupils for some GCSE examinations early, e.g. at the end of Y10 or even earlier. Clearly, acceleration is a strategy that will only be successful if it will be continued through subsequent stages of a learner's education. It has been suggested that "curriculum acceleration may be the only way for an educator to meet the educational needs of a high-ability learner, prevent academic underachievement, and prevent behaviour problems caused by boredom, frustration, and anger". However, in view of the difficulties of coordinating such an approach across different stages of the education system, it may seem that differentiation and enrichment offer preferred strategies.
Differentiation
Differentiation has been defined as "modification in content, process, and product based on the needs of the student". Differentiation is a process of responding to the different needs of different learners. In one sense it is a real challenge for teachers, as the organisation of schools (timetables etc.) makes the class the prime unit for planning. In effect every lesson is 'n lessons in one', where n is 25-30 or however many students are present.
Students differ in many different ways, not just measured ability, so attempting to avoid the differentiation issue through 'setting' will only ever be a partial solution. Research also suggests that teachers feel obliged to teach top sets rapidly, limiting time for explaining ideas.
And even with setting 'every class is a mixed-ability class': both because there is always a range within any set, and because individual learners will have a profile of strengths, even within a curriculum subject. Yet, research also suggests that teachers do not use differentiation strategies to the same extent in set classes, which is perhaps understandable as a main rationale for setting is surely to make life easier for the teacher!
So differentiation is not something that only applies to teaching broad ability groups: as Stepanek comments,
"differentiated instruction…is a continuous process of learning about students' needs and interests and using that knowledge to guide instruction"
Common forms of differentiation are by task (setting different work) or by outcome (expecting different levels of attainment from different students undertaking the same task). Both of these approaches have limitations in classroom teaching, and a common alternative strategy (often used instinctively in real time, so not always recognised) is differentiation by support – where different students receive different levels and timing of support according to need. All teachers do this to some extent, and it requires good awareness and skill to be an effective strategy – but it has the advantage that the teacher does not have to assume in advance which students will excel or struggle on a particular activity (unlike differentiation by task).
It has been suggested that the English National Curriculum (NC) structure, with its large number of topics to be 'covered' does not provide a very helpful context for developing suitable learning opportunities for gifted learners. However, even within such a system, there are ways to plan teaching (using the notion of key ideas, and even NC levels) that can support progression for all learners.
Enrichment
In some curriculum contexts (e.g., many would feel the English NC) enrichment may be needed to allow the most able learners to access suitable provision for the gifted. Enrichment has to be different in kind from the standard lesson activities experienced by students:
"Enrichment basically refers to study, experience or activity which is above and beyond the normal curriculum followed by other children of the same age. There is enrichment by depth, where a topic is covered more fully; and there is enrichment by breadth, where broader and more varied topics are explored…
children who finish their work quickly should not be given more of the same work to complete. Not only is that not a form of enrichment, but it is precisely those children who least need to do more of the same work as they have already grasped the principles involved. With enrichment the gifted children remain with their own class."
Enrichment is therefore, according to Maltby a form of individualized learning ("where the child has work which is particular to that child") rather than just individuated teaching ("where a child interacts with the teacher on an individual basis"). Enrichment activities should be specifically planned for the gifted child, rather than being taken from the programme of work later in schooling. In the UK context, "schools are encouraged to include different curricular provision, either within or alongside the statutory curriculum".
Sternberg argues that the type of provision that is appropriate (acceleration versus enrichment) depends upon what we value:
"If we value rapid learning, then acceleration makes sense. If we believe that what matters is the depth or care students take probing into what they learn, enrichment will be preferable."
Compacting the curriculum
A key approach that can help maintain interest and motivation of gifted students is compacting. This is an extension of the principle of diagnostic assessment that all teachers are encouraged to use to avoid spending precious class time on material that students have previously mastered. Compacting occurs "where a child has mastered an area or a skill in a subject, as assessed by a pretest, then…such a pupil is allowed to miss work in areas in which he is already competent, and use the time 'saved' on extension activities". There are three stages to compacting
- pre-testing – identify content or skills already acquired
- elimination of surplus materials from the scheme of work
- replacing the surplus materials with alternative, suitably challenging, materials
Among the reasons that compacting is considered suitable for gifted learners is that it is thought to satisfy the hunger for more in-depth learning than normal school fare may provide (see chapter 2), and so avoids boredom; and that it can encourage independence in learning (see chapter 5). However, compacting requires teachers to plan learning on an individual basis, something that is only likely to be successful where learners can already demonstrate a level of self-regulation of learning,
"Curriculum compacting is a system designed to adapt the regular curriculum to meet the needs of high-ability learners by either eliminating work that has already been mastered or by streamlining work that may be mastered by students at a quicker pace than that of their peers. Curriculum for the high-ability learner should be compacted in those areas that represent the student's strength."
Developing science activities for gifted learners
Suggestions for designing learning activities for gifted science students are often linked to those areas of strength that such learners are believed to show, which are also seen as particularly desirable aims of educational activity:
- Higher level thinking
- Creativity
- Independence in learning
- Group-work
- Inquiry skills
These themes are interlinked, as will become clear in the following discussion.
Higher level thinking
The notion of a hierarchy of thinking skills is well established, with skills labelled as analysis, synthesis and criticism or evaluation seen as being more demanding than those of recall, comprehension and application. Teaching that requires learners to use the 'higher level' skills (see table 3.1) will be more demanding for students. Clearly teaching will require all learners to use thinking skills from across the spectrum, but it is recommended that when working with the most able, a profile much richer in the higher level skills is appropriate.
Ideally, incorporating appropriate demands into science teaching needs to be considered at a departmental level when planning schemes of work, and when designing a departmental assessment policy.
The literature contains a range of suggestions of how to enrich teaching in terms of higher-level thinking.
Questioning types: In terms of the questions asked in class: those directed to the most able should require the learner to analyse, synthesize or evaluate.
Making thinking explicit: learners should be asked to be explicit when using inductive and deductive reasoning: being encouraged to cite evidence, or sources of hunches, and explain the logic used in drawing conclusions (see chapter 5). Teaching can model appropriate thinking strategies for students.
Pacing learning: whilst the most able are often able to learn rapidly, integration of ideas is encouraged by having extended projects with longer-term deadlines.
Conceptual learning: science learning should be focussed on the underlying concepts ('deep content'), rather than specific facts. Teachers can look to increase the level of abstractness when teaching the gifted – something science lends itself to, and where often in teaching we aim to help make abstract ideas concrete for many learners. Similarly, where teaching often involves deliberate attempts to simplify complex ideas without distorting them, the gifted may benefit from tackling intentionally complex learning materials. Such teaching can help students to identify rules, principles and relationships.
Encouraging integration: offering opportunities for learners to make connections across disciplines as well as across topics.
Creativity
Activities designed for the most able should look to provide opportunities for them to demonstrate and develop their creativity. We know that intuition and visualisation skills are strong in many creative scientists, and we should plan gifted science education activities with this in mind.
Open-endedness: questions that admit a wide range of possible responses can encourage critical and creative thinking. Similarly, open-ended tasks allow learners to respond creatively.
Encourage novelty: it is very easy to criticise new ideas, especially where they have obvious faults. However, the novelty can in itself be valued (after all, many very successful new ideas in science and technology were flawed in their initial form). Students can be encouraged to produce ideas and products that challenge familiar ideas and ways of working.
Problem-solving: a problem is more than an exercise (where familiar ideas and processes are rehearsed). A genuine problem requires students to develop and organise their knowledge into a new form to produce a solution. Authentic problems may motivate gifted learners, as they will see some genuine purpose to the work. (The gifted cohort at the author's primary school were assigned tasks such as finding out how many paving stones would be needed around the new outdoor pool, and finding the distance around one circuit of the route for a fundraising walk. Presumably, the answers were later checked by adults!)
Complex Productions: work for the gifted should offer them the chance to produce some type of outcome. This will be an authentic activity if there is a genuine audience for the product.
Independence in learning
One aim of education is to produce effective learners, students who are able to direct and regulate their own learning. Within a school context there is often a tension between this aim, and pressures on the teacher to both retain classroom authority and 'cover' a set curriculum. However, these aims need not be at odds, and students who are able to make sensible decisions about their own learning (e.g. when to move on to the next task; when some remedial input is indicated) can make life easier for the teacher, especially where teaching sets out to match the needs of different learners in a class.
Gifted students are likely to have developed greater metacognitive knowledge (i.e. knowledge of their own thinking and learning – see chapter 5) and skills than many of their classmates, and some may be effective autodidacts (i.e. self-teaching) outside of school – used to planning and evaluating their own learning when following-up their interests. The special needs of the gifted in classes makes it sensible for teachers to both make use of, and seek to develop, their ability to regulate their own learning. This does not mean the teacher should abdicate responsibility. Rather the teacher should delegate some 'measured' degree of responsibility to the gifted student to work as an independent learner, whilst monitoring whether the degree of independence should be modified.
A number of suggestions are made in the literature for encouraging independence in learning.
Choice: it is suggested that students should be given some level of choice in selecting activities and approaches.
Technology: ICT can be used as a learning tool to allow gifted learners scope for independent learning.
Depth of study: gifted learners can be encouraged to undertake extended studies that allow them to follow-up interests in some depth.
Self-evaluation: gifted learners should be involved in evaluating their own performance against appropriate criteria. One simple approach that can be used is 'most difficult first'. This is used where the class is working on a graded set of exercises (allowing most students to develop understanding and competency as they move through the questions of gradually increasing difficulty). The most able students can be asked to attempt the most difficult questions first. If they successfully complete these, then they move on a new activity (preferably self-selected) and are not expected to work through the less difficult questions. (This may be compared with the process of curriculum compacting discussed above).
'Student, S, quickly took the lead organizing the cards and reading them out . . . She had a clear idea of what she wanted to do and how she was going to do it . . . She made sudden, snap decisions . . . her classification was fairly sound'
Observation notes from an ASCEND session
'They worked quickly, in a seemingly frenzied and unstructured way . . . they were fired up and excited'
Group work
In reviewing the nature of giftedness in Science, Gilbert suggested that many gifted learners would be able to take on roles within groups, and offer group leadership. This in turn, provides opportunities for learning from activities,
"Research indicates that cooperative learning, if handled properly by a skillful teacher, enhances the learning of high-ability students"
Classroom talk can be a major means by which learners share, develop and challenge ideas. This relies upon the talk being on task, and at a sufficient level of sophistication. In particular, talk that supports effective learning will have a 'dialogic' nature, that is it will be about sharing perspectives, and questioning and exploring ideas, rather than 'telling'. Effective science teachers ensure that this type of talk features in classroom dialogue. When students are encouraged to engage in this type of talk, that facilitates learning, they are able to demonstrate their potential for thinking about ideas in science.
Peer tutoring
This could indeed be seen as a means of structuring learning to enable informal peer tutoring, where students teach each other. If peer tutoring were simply seen as making use of the presence of more advanced students to help their less advanced peers, then this would be a questionable activity: children go to school to learn, not to teach. However, teachers' own experiences suggest that they can develop a much deeper understanding of their subject through the process of preparing to teach others, and having to explain an idea carefully to another who does not yet understand it can certainly be the basis of a useful learning experience.
"remind me how psychiatry is different from psychology"
"psychiatry tends to use counselling and stuff, psychology is the study of the way the mind works, psychiatry is definitely to do with (dealing with) mental disorders"
(Read the next chapter)
Dialogue from an ASCEND session
Inquiry skills
Inquiry is fundamental to science, although genuine inquiry (rather than practising formulaic 'fair testing') is perhaps not as common in many science classrooms as many of us might wish. However, inquiry is considered to be very suitable for motivating and challenging the most able – and potentially offering opportunities for higher level thinking, creativity, independence in learning and group-work. In the period since the National Curriculum was introduced in England, genuine inquiry in school science has tended to be downplayed as students needed to demonstrate competence in the more limited competencies required for 'fair testing' (for Sc1 'investigations' that have contributed to GCSE examination scores).
In some other countries it is common for students to develop open-ended projects for science fairs, and demonstrate genuine inquiry skills (and sometimes make genuine scientific contributions), although this usually involves a degree of 'mentoring' that is somewhat different from the typical teacher-pupil relationship that can develop within the scope of most classroom contexts. However, in the UK, opportunities for extended authentic projects have in recent years been mostly limited to those involved in enrichment activities though after-school science clubs, or able to attend special Summer schools.
Although it is widely accepted that much practical work in secondary schools has become "a tedious and dull activity for both students and teachers", there is much potential in using practical science to engage and challenge gifted (and other) science learners.
Problem-Based Learning: inquiry allows students to investigate authentic problems, in 'real-world' contexts, and so can motivate able students who may become genuinely interested in finding answers and solutions.
Design: experimental design allows students to demonstrate creativity, as well as apply logical thinking.
Drawing conclusions: inquiry provides opportunities for learners to draw their own conclusions, identifying patterns and making generalisations.
Appreciating method: the nature of science is considered to be a suitable theme for engaging and challenging the gifted in science. Authentic inquiry offers opportunities for appreciating the nature of scientific method, as well as the subtleties and complexities of designing experiments and the logical difficulties in drawing sound conclusions form practical work in science. Indeed, the nature of science was chosen as the main theme for the ASCEND programme, and is the theme of the following chapter.
