A topic in research methodology
"The basic empirical procedure is observation. Both measurement and experiment involve observation, whereas the latter is often done without quantitative precision (i.e., without measuring) and without deliberately changing the values of certain variables (i.e., without experimenting). …the outcome of an act of observation is a datum…"
Mario Bunge
Observation is a common data collection technique. There are different kinds of observation, so we might better think of observation as a family of techniques, suitable for adoption within a range of research methodologies. Observation is therefore adopted as part of many research designs.
Two key ways in which research observation can vary is (a) in the role of the researcher, in terns of the stance they present to those observed (and related to this, the extent to which observation is naturalistic or interventionist); and (b) in the level of structure imposed upon the observation process.
Researchers should always be aware that the very act of being present and observing a social situation may influence it (the observer effect – people may behave differently when they know they are being observed), and although this may be avoided by completely covert observation (such that those being observed are not aware anyone is observing them) this is generally not ethical in educational or much other social research.
Observation is theory-laden
"…sense data are often preceded by expectations born from more or less vague beliefs; moreover, they are rendered possible by an expectant, alert attitude."
Mario Bunge
A new born baby might experience sense impressions of the world (shifting colour shapes), but this could only be experienced as a 'blooming and buzzing confusion' as was famously noted by the psychologist William James. Adults perceive the world already largely interpreted pre-consciously (we see buses and hear voices).
Research observation is always a directed act, that is we are not just open to any sensory input, but observing with a deliberate purpose with questions in mind: questions informed by a theoretical perspective and existing conceptual knowledge of the field. Inevitably then, we are at least (somewhat) selective in what we notice, and make sense of observation in (somewhat) pre-determined ways. In highly structured observations we are very selective in what we notice, and make sense of observation in strictly pre-determined ways.
We could not effectively observe without being focused to some degree on what we expect to be relevant – but this can bias our observations towards what we expect.
"…scientific observation is purposeful and enlightened perception, a selective and interpretive operation in which ideas have at least as much weight as sense impressions: this makes it relevant to conceptual knowledge, and, at the same time, constitutes a source of error."
Bunge, 1967/1988
The idea that observation is theory-laden, informed in this way by our mental preparation for the observation process, is one of the key assumptions of the post-positivist (or postpositivist) perspective on science and research.
Read more about observation:
Work cited:
- Bunge, M. (1998). Philosophy of Science. Volume 2: From explanation to justification (Revised ed.). Routledge. (1967)
- James, W. (1890). The Principles of Psychology.
My introduction to educational research:
Taber, K. S. (2013). Classroom-based Research and Evidence-based Practice: An introduction (2nd ed.). London: Sage.
